The DOI matches its Crossref record; 218 of the 221 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 178 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism
Open accessAbstract
Research on cognitive control and executive function has long recognized the relevance of motivational factors. Recently, however, the topic has come increasingly to center stage, with a surge of new studies examining the interface of motivation and cognitive control. In the present article we survey research situated at this interface, considering work from cognitive and social psychology and behavioral economics, but with a particular focus on neuroscience research. We organize existing findings into three core areas, considering them in the light of currently vying theoretical perspectives. Based on the accumulated evidence, we advocate for a view of control function that treats it as a domain of reward-based decision making. More broadly, we argue that neuroscientific evidence plays a critical role in understanding the mechanisms by which motivation and cognitive control interact. Opportunities for further cross-fertilization between behavioral and neuroscientific research are highlighted.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review synthesizes behavioral and neuroscience research on how motivation shapes cognitive control, arguing that control is best understood as a form of reward-based decision making. It contends that neuroscience is essential for grounding the constructs of reward and effort and for explaining incentive effects, control dynamics, and effort costs.
Key findings
- Incentives generally improve executive control across selective attention, memory, response inhibition, task switching, and working memory; for example, Padmala & Pessoa’s reward cue ($20 vs. $00) reduced Stroop-like interference and facilitation effects. However, boundary conditions exist: very small payments can undermine performance, very large incentives can produce “choking under pressure,” and extrinsic rewards may reduce intrinsic motivation.
- Cognitive control carries an intrinsic cost: participants prefer lower-demand tasks and require substantially higher pay to choose high-demand tasks; neural signals in ventral striatum, ACC, and dorsolateral PFC track effort discounting and demand avoidance.
- Depletion effects are increasingly interpreted motivationally rather than as glucose or resource depletion; incentives can restore performance and error-related neural signals, and neural data show changes in reward and control networks rather than global metabolic decline.
- The review favors reward-based models over force-field and limited-resource accounts, proposing interactions between reward-related regions (ventromedial/orbitofrontal cortex, ventral striatum, amygdala, midbrain dopamine) and control-related regions (lateral PFC, ACC, parietal cortex, insula), with ACC and dopamine as key interfaces.
Methods
- Narrative, selective review rather than a primary empirical study; it synthesizes cognitive psychology, social/personality psychology, behavioral economics, and neuroscience literatures.
- Organizes evidence under three headings: the incentive–performance relationship, temporal dynamics of control, and the cost of control; compares force-field, limited-resource, and reward-based decision-making theories.
- Draws on cited behavioral, fMRI, EEG, primate neurophysiology, and pharmacological studies; no new data, systematic search, or meta-analysis are reported.
Limitations
- The authors state that neuroscientific work on motivation and control is still early-stage, many mechanistic details remain unresolved, and depletion-related neural findings are sparse and inconsistent; reward and effort constructs also face circularity and measurement problems.
- Evident from the text: the review is selective and narrative, with no formal meta-analysis or systematic inclusion criteria; conclusions rely on cited studies rather than new experiments, and some figures/references appear incomplete in the provided text.
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Claims the paper makes
120 Not checked yet · 54 Own interpretation · 13 No basis given
In the paper
“Lynn et al. (2012) found that experimental participants performing Stroop and working-memory tasks reported an increase in the urge to quit immediately following difficult, conflict-inducing trials.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Dynamics of Control
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lynn et al. 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the intensity and direction of control tend to vary over time, both in response to the details of the task and independent of them”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Dynamics of Control
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Eichele et al. 2008
- Not checked yetcites Esterman et al. 2013
- Not checked yetcites Weissman et al. 2006
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Conflict adjustment effects have also been observed to increase in size following performance-contingent monetary rewards”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Dynamics of Control
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Braem et al. 2012
- Not checked yetcites St ürmer et al. 2011
- Not checked yetcites Braem et al. 2013
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In the paper
“The attention-distraction group showed a subsequent reduction in measured working memory capacity, relative to the control group.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Dynamics of Control
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Schmeichel 2007
plaindirectn = 2- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“the investment of cognitive effort can be driven by internal sources of motivation”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cacioppo et al. 1996
- Not checked yetcites Deci & Ryan 2000
- Not checked yetcites Nicholls 1984
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Enhanced performance was found on reward trials relative to nonreward trials, in terms of both error rates and response times.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Padmala & Pessoa 2011
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The introduction or enlargement of performance-contingent rewards or punishments results in improvements in task performance, specifically attributable to enhanced executive control.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Padmala & Pessoa 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we advocate for a view of control function that treats it as a domain of reward-based decision making.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
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- The authors state this as an assumption: Decision making weighs both the anticipated rewards and anticipated costs of specific control operations.
In the paper
“recent work has adopted an alternative perspective on the depletion effect, characterizing it as a motivational phenomenon.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Dynamics of Control
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Inzlicht et al. 2014
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Similar incentive-induced performance improvements in control have been observed in a range of other tasks, tapping other facets of executive function.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Libby & Lipe 1992
- Not checked yetcites Leotti & Wager 2010
- Not checked yetcites Aarts et al. 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 36
- Probably not a substantial claim. 33
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“paradoxical effects can arise when incentive magnitude becomes either very small or very large.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gneezy & Rustichini 2000
- Not checked yetcites Ariely et al. 2009
- Not checked yetcites Baumeister 1984
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the proposal that conflict may act as an aversive signal prompting task avoidance”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Dynamics of Control
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Botvinick 2007
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“some research has suggested the existence of an undermining effect, according to which the introduction of extrinsic (e.g., monetary) rewards can reduce the intrinsic motivation associated with a task”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Murayama et al. 2010
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Control is motivated.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > -Arnold Palmer
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“self-control exertion at Time 1 leads to the motivated switching of task priorities, wherein mental work becomes increasingly aversive, making mental leisure increasingly attractive”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Dynamics of Control
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Inzlicht et al. 2014
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we argue that neuroscientific evidence plays a critical role in understanding the mechanisms by which motivation and cognitive control interact.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > Abstract
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“incentives are liable to trigger performance improvements primarily in task settings where adjustments in the intensity or direction of control tend to be efficacious”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Camerer & Hogarth 1999
- Not checked yetcites Bonner et al. 2000
- Not checked yetcites Awasthi & Pratt 1990
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“engagement in a control-demanding activity is followed by reduced persistence and/or poorer performance on a second task, compared to when that second task is preceded by a less demanding activity.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Dynamics of Control
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hagger et al. 2010
- Not checked yetcites Muraven & Baumeister 2000
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“control is known to vary in response to ongoing performance monitoring.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Dynamics of Control
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites St ürmer et al. 2011
- Not checked yetcites Boksem et al. 2006
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although all of these studies have observed enhancements in control with increasing incentives, it is important to note that this relationship is not inviolable.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Camerer & Hogarth 1999
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Traditionally, these types of depletion effects have been explained in terms of a structural constraint on the capacity for sustained cognitive control”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Dynamics of Control
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Baumeister et al. 1998
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“Baumeister and colleagues (Gailliot et al. 2007, Masicampo & Baumeister 2008) have proposed that the resource underlying behavioral depletion effects and related phenomena is in fact blood glucose.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > From Metaphor to Mechanism
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gailliot et al. 2007
- Not checked yetcites Masicampo & Baumeister 2008
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“CET does not explicitly specify the basis for strategy choice.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > From Metaphor to Mechanism
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In forcefield accounts, as represented by CET, cognitive actions are the result of equilibrium being reached between driving and restraining forces.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > From Metaphor to Mechanism
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“resources have been decried as theoretical”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > From Metaphor to Mechanism
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hockey 1997
- Not checked yetcites Inzlicht et al. 2014
- Not checked yetcites Kurzban et al. 2013
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“such theories introduce effort as a variable mediating between incentives and performance.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > From Metaphor to Mechanism
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reward-based theories are founded on the idea that behavioral choices reflect comparisons of reward or value.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > From Metaphor to Mechanism
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Some initial evidence for the role of glucose was provided in studies that found glucose administration reversed the depletion effect”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > Resource Models
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gailliot et al. 2007
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This approach views the operation of the control as involving an ongoing series of decisions, each aimed at maximizing expected utility.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > Reward-Based Models
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dayan 2012
- Not checked yetcites Shenhav et al. 2013
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Decision making weighs both the anticipated rewards and anticipated costs of specific control operations.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In many settings, the answer assumed is that one may infer such values from the individual's overt choices.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > From Metaphor to Mechanism
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“effort actually plays not one but two mediating roles.First, it determines the quality of performance (and thus, indirectly, the performance-dependent income), and second, it scales the cost associated with task engagement.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > From Metaphor to Mechanism
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These measures are necessarily indirect, serving only as potential biomarkers or reporter variables indicating the level of effort; they clearly cannot mediate the relationship between incentives and performance.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > From Metaphor to Mechanism
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effort is purported to explain the relationship between incentives and performance, but it is also measured or inferred from the observed relationship between these two.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > From Metaphor to Mechanism
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The basic idea is to conceptualize action as the result of forces, akin to physical forces, that attract an individual toward a goal or else impede progress toward that goal.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > Force-Field Models
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Atkinson & Birch 1978
- Not checked yetcites Berridge 2004
- Not checked yetcites Hull 1943
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the optimal amount of effort to invest is the one that maximizes net reward, i.e., the”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > From Metaphor to Mechanism
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“based on behavior alone, values cannot be measured independently of choice.Consequently, the assertion that choices maximize values is intrinsically circular.The observation that values are actually computed in the brain essentially breaks this circularity.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > From Metaphor to Mechanism
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Padoa-Schioppa 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The idea that cognitive control may be inherently costly or aversive has cropped up not only in the depletion literature but also in connection with other topics”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Cost of Control
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Taylor 1981
- Not checked yetcites Bonner & Sprinkle 2002
- Not checked yetcites Smith & Walker 1993
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Shenhav et al. (2013) presented a theory centering on the concept of the expected value of control (EVC).”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > Reward-Based Models
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shenhav et al. 2013
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If these assertions are correct, if neuroscience offers a way to ground otherwise circular notions of reward and effort, then the role of neuroscience assumes central importance in the study of motivation and cognitive control.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > From Metaphor to Mechanism
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A different set of regions, including the ventromedial frontal and medial parietal cortices, has been widely reported to decline in activity during performance of control-demanding tasks and has thus sometimes been referred to as the default mode or task-negative network”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > A Tale of Two Systems
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buckner et al. 2008
- Not checked yetcites Fox et al. 2005
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Jimura et al. (2010) found selective behavioral performance enhancements and individual differences effects of motivational context, which were statistically mediated by a shift in lateral PFC activity dynamics from a transient mode (activated late in the trial, during the response period) to a sustained and anticipatory mode (activated both tonically and early in the trial during working memory”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Jimura et al. 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a voxel-based lesion-symptom mapping study by Gläscher and colleagues (2012) identified a region within medial PFC associated with performance in both reward and cognitive control tasks; the investigators proposed that this region might play a mediating role in linking reward and control networks.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > A Tale of Two Systems
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gläscher et al. 2012
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“strong direct connectivity exists between ventromedial frontal areas involved in reward processing and lateral PFC areas strongly implicated in control (Barbas & Pandya 1989, Cavada et al. 2000), alongside a pathway connecting the two areas via the caudate nucleus (Alexander et al. 1986).”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > A Tale of Two Systems
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Barbas & Pandya 1989
- Not checked yetcites Cavada et al. 2000
- Not checked yetcites Alexander et al. 1986
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“DA is known to have a range of effects on cellular physiology, such as altering neuronal excitability (Henze et al. 2000, Nicola et al. 2000) and enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio (Durstewitz & Seamans 2008, Thurley et al. 2008).”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > A Tale of Two Systems
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Henze et al. 2000
- Not checked yetcites Nicola et al. 2000
- Not checked yetcites Durstewitz & Seamans 2008
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“When task events signaled an increasing opportunity for reward on one dimension, rising ACC activity was observed along with a greater behavioral bias toward the relevant target dimension.Moreover, the increase in ACC activity was accompanied by a shift in connectivity between the dorsolateral PFC and other PFC regions associated with each dimension”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rowe et al. 2008
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that motivational context can exert a sustained influence on PFC activity and that incentives can affect cognitive control in both a trial-by-trial and a contextual (block-based) manner.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance: Neuroscientific Findings
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the lateral PFC may house a discrete set of hierarchically organized subregions, subserving different levels of control function”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > A Tale of Two Systems
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Badre 2008
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“This structure has long been known to play a critical role in monitoring action selection and task performance as well as in triggering compensatory adjustments in cognitive control”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > A Tale of Two Systems
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shenhav et al. 2013
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a number of investigators have proposed that the ACC might play a central role in bridging between reward and control processing.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > A Tale of Two Systems
hedgedconditional- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Etzel and colleagues ( J.A. Etzel, M.W. Cole, J.M. Zacks, K.N.Kay & T.S. Braver, manuscript submitted) used fMRI pattern classification methods to demonstrate that task rules could be decoded more effectively on incentive trials compared to intermixed nonincentive trials.Moreover, the patterns of activity associated with each task were more distinct from each other, which suggests that incentives”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Etzel et al., manuscript submitted
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“neurons in dorsolateral PFC that code for specific locations were found to display sustained activity over the delay, consistent with a role in working memory maintenance.More importantly, on trials in which large rewards were offered for accurate recall, this delay-period activity was selectively enhanced.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Leon & Shadlen 1999
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“several investigators have suggested that a corresponding hierarchy resides within the medial PFC, which serves to regulate the lateral hierarchy based on motivational inputs”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > A Tale of Two Systems
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Holroyd & Yeung 2012
- Not checked yetcites Kouneiher et al. 2009
- Not checked yetcites O'Reilly 2010
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
In the paper
“DA may sharpen cortical tuning (Gamo & Arnsten 2011), which could have the effect of heightening perceptual sensitivity and enhancing top-down attentional or control signals.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > A Tale of Two Systems
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gamo & Arnsten 2011
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Shenhav and colleagues (2013), who propose that the dorsal ACC computes the expected value of control, as defined previously, using this as a basis for selecting among candidate control functions, which are then implemented in other sectors of the lateral PFC.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > A Tale of Two Systems
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shenhav et al. 2013
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“incentive cues occurring before the imperative stimulus were found to trigger activity in core components of the reward network (dopaminergic midbrain, caudate/putamen, and nucleus accumbens) as well as in lateral frontoparietal components of the control network.More strikingly, during the same period these two sets of regions also showed increased functional connectivity”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Padmala & Pessoa 2011
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The vast majority of neuroscientific research on the relationship between motivation and control adopts what we have termed the reward-based perspective, viewing control operations as guided by a utility-maximization principle.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > A Tale of Two Systems
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Experimental support for this account has been provided in studies showing that during an oddball targetdiscrimination task, the long-run average reward value (across minute timescales) had a distinct influence on task reaction times (Guitart-Masip et al. 2011) and that this effect is modulated by pharmacological manipulation of DA levels (Beierholm et al. 2013).”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Guitart-Masip et al. 2011
- Not checked yetcites Beierholm et al. 2013
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“which is widely interpreted as an ERP correlate of conflict detection.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > Control Dynamics: Neuroscientific Findings
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Because the latter network tends to become more active when the subject is at rest, i.e., not engaged in effortful, controlled information processing, it is often referred to as the default mode network (Buckner et al. 2008).”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > Control Dynamics: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buckner et al. 2008
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“theoretical work implicating tonic DA release in the vigor (i.e., intensity, speed) of responding (Niv et al. 2007).Under this account, tonic DA encodes the long-run average reward rate of the environment.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Niv et al. 2007
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Esposito and colleagues (2014), who found that inducing mental exhaustion-resulting from sustained performance of a novel task-led to both increased activity (resting-state fluctuations) in the default mode network and decreased activation of the frontoparietal executive network.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > Control Dynamics: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Esposito et al. (2014)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Depletion effects involve a wholesale reduction in the vigor of cognitive control, beyond a reduction in performance monitoring following sustained cognitive exertion.
In the paper
“These results were interpreted as indicating an overmotivation effect, with an imbalance between activation in subcortical (reward-related) versus prefrontal (cognitive) regions leading toward a shift from more goal-directed to habitual guidance of behavior”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mobbs et al. 2009
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The authors interpret this finding as reflecting a reduction in top-down control of reward representations in orbitofrontal cortex.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > Control Dynamics: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wagner et al. (2013)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Compared to low-incentive trials, high-incentive trials were associated with both poorer performance and increased activity in the DA midbrain and dorsal striatum.Moreover, these effects were linked, in that participants showing the strongest responses in these regions also showed the largest incentive-linked performance decrements.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mobbs et al. 2009
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Braver and colleagues (Braver 2012, Braver et al. 2007) proposed a theory of dual mechanisms of control, under which proactive control processes reflect context-triggered updating and active maintenance of task goals in lateral PFC and are dependent upon phasic and tonic DA modulation of PFC neuronal activity.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Relationship Between Incentives and Performance: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Braver 2012
- Not checked yetcites Braver et al. 2007
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At the behavioral level, motivation impacts the dynamics of cognitive control on both short timescales, through performance monitoring, and longer timescales, as in the ego-depletion effect.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > Control Dynamics: Neuroscientific Findings
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A second general conclusion from the available neuroscientific data, again consistent with reward-based behavioral models, is that the exertion of control carries an intrinsic subjective cost and that this cost plays an important role in shaping control function.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > DISCUSSION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“which suggests that a promotion focus (a focus on advancement and accomplishment) should produce better performance when incentives are framed in terms of monetary gain than when they are framed in terms of the avoidance of loss, whereas a prevention focus (a focus on safety and security) should produce the converse pattern.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Higgins 2000
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Initial studies have suggested that the circuitry underlying cognitive effort-based decision making overlaps with that relating to physical effort, but it is also partially distinctive (see Schmidt et al. 2012).”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Cost of Control: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Schmidt et al. 2012
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“rising incentives can be understood as making it”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > DISCUSSION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“which is the difference between (a) the rewards expected from mobilizing control with a particular direction and intensity and (b) the inherent cost associated with this mobilization.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Cost of Control: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shenhav et al. (2013)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Croxson and colleagues (2009) observed an analogous integration between reward and effort demands in dorsal ACC, alongside signals correlating with net value in both ventral striatum and midbrain.”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Cost of Control: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Croxson et al. (2009)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Shenhav et al. (2013), focusing specifically on the dorsal ACC, proposed that a core function of this structure is to compute the expected value of control”
§ Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism > The Cost of Control: Neuroscientific Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shenhav et al. (2013)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Decision making weighs both the anticipated rewards and anticipated costs of specific control operations.
“An important assumption that enters into most reward-based models is that decision making weighs both the anticipated rewards and anticipated costs of specific control operations.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Parsimony is a legitimate criterion for comparing psychological theories.
“claims based upon parsimony cannot withstand contrary empirical evidence.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Circularity in explaining choice via reward is a theoretical problem that must be resolved.
“There is an obvious risk of circularity here: Choice is explained based on reward, but reward is inferred from choice.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Neural correlates of effort can serve as independent measures of effort that are dissociable from performance.
“If neural correlates of effort can be identified, this provides a way out of the potential circularity of effort-based explanation.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Depletion effects involve a wholesale reduction in the vigor of cognitive control, beyond a reduction in performance monitoring following sustained cognitive exertion.
“Depletion effects, however, are postulated to involve more than a reduction in performance monitoring following sustained cognitive exertion: They are understood to involve a wholesale reduction in the vigor of cognitive control.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Consequently, modern theories of motivation increasingly describe motivational states as the output of a computation (calculation), where the expected value of an action is weighed against anticipated costs. These include energetic costs, as all goal pursuit will require the expenditure of metabolic energy, opportunity costs, as the pursuit of one goal might block progress towards another, hedonic”
From Motivation in the Service of Allostasis: The Role of Anterior Mid-Cingulate Cortex (2019) · cites this paper as Botvinick and Braver, 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In short, studies have provided evidence for a widespread influence of incentive reward on executive functioning and, more broadly, cognitive control which is also observed on the level of attentional control (Botvinick & Braver, 2015).”
From Selection history: How reward modulates selectivity of visual attention. (2018) · cites this paper as Botvinick & Braver, 2015
In the citing paper
“An acute or chronic impairment in explaining-away prediction errors represents a form of “cognitive stress” and will be registered by higher model levels on the cognitive hierarchy involved in monitoring the cognitive performance of the lower levels of the internal model (85).”
From Can Bayesian Theories of Autism Spectrum Disorder Help Improve Clinical Practice? (2016) · cites this paper as [85]
In the citing paper
“As alluded to above, a persistent impairment of minimizing prediction errors in a specific processing stream is likely registered by higher systems for self-monitoring (85) and creates the continuing experience of an unpredictable environment of bewildering complexity.”
From Can Bayesian Theories of Autism Spectrum Disorder Help Improve Clinical Practice? (2016) · cites this paper as [85]
In the citing paper
“This article will be included because it offers the unique perspective of CC's interconnection with motivation which may offer insight into possible connections with embodied cognition, especially with respects to the reward-based models.”
From The Ergonomics of Learning: A Proposed Update to Bloom’s Taxonomy (2025) · cites this paper as Botvinick, M., & Braver, T. (2015)
In the citing paper
“This article also provides explicit definitions which will benefit the theory situation process.”
From The Ergonomics of Learning: A Proposed Update to Bloom’s Taxonomy (2025) · cites this paper as Botvinick, M., & Braver, T. (2015)
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“…shows that the investment of cognitive effort can be driven by internal sources of motivation (e.g., need for cognition or achievement motivation; Cacioppo et al. 1996, Deci & Ryan 2000, Nicholls 1984, Satterthwaite et al. 2012), some research has suggested the existence of an undermining…”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Botvinick, M., & Braver, T.
- Affiliations
- Princeton University (US)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- Corresponding author
- Botvinick, Matthew
- Venue
- Annual Review of Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2015-01-03
- Volume
- 66
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 83-113
- ISSN
- 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2085
- OpenAlex
- W2166756161
- Cited by
- 909
- References
- 221
- Citations by year
- 2026: 67 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 89 · 2023: 72 · 2022: 81 · 2021: 92 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 97 · 2018: 101 · 2017: 70 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 21
- FWCI
- 4.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- John Templeton Foundation
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute on Aging (R13AG042291)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R37MH066078, R21MH097260, R01MH098815, R37 MH0660708)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- motivation, cognitive control, executive function, reward-based decision-making, neural mechanisms, behavioral economics, social psychology, cognitive psychology, control functions
- MeSH terms
- Decision Making, Humans, Motivation, Reward, Cerebrum, Executive Function
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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