Motivation and Cognitive Control: From Behavior to Neural Mechanism

Lynn et al. (2012) found that participants reported an increased urge to quit immediately after difficult, conflict-inducing trials.

“Lynn et al. (2012) found that experimental participants performing Stroop and working-memory tasks reported an increase in the urge to quit immediately following difficult, conflict-inducing trials.”

• cites Lynn et al. 2012Not checked yet

The intensity and direction of control fluctuate over time, both in response to task details and independently of them.

“the intensity and direction of control tend to vary over time, both in response to the details of the task and independent of them”

• cites Eichele et al. 2008Not checked yet
• cites Esterman et al. 2013Not checked yet
• cites Weissman et al. 2006Not checked yet

Conflict adjustment effects increase following performance-contingent monetary rewards and punishments.

“Conflict adjustment effects have also been observed to increase in size following performance-contingent monetary rewards”

• cites Braem et al. 2012Not checked yet
• cites St ürmer et al. 2011Not checked yet
• cites Braem et al. 2013Not checked yet

Schmeichel (2007) found that an attention-distraction group showed reduced working memory capacity relative to a control group.

“The attention-distraction group showed a subsequent reduction in measured working memory capacity, relative to the control group.”

• cites Schmeichel 2007Not checked yet

Cognitive effort can be driven by internal sources of motivation such as need for cognition or achievement motivation.

“the investment of cognitive effort can be driven by internal sources of motivation”

• cites Cacioppo et al. 1996Not checked yet
• cites Deci & Ryan 2000Not checked yet
• cites Nicholls 1984Not checked yet

In Padmala & Pessoa (2011), reward trials produced better performance than nonreward trials on a Stroop-like selective attention task, in both error rates and response times.

“Enhanced performance was found on reward trials relative to nonreward trials, in terms of both error rates and response times.”

• cites Padmala & Pessoa 2011Not checked yet

Performance-contingent rewards or punishments generally improve task performance by enhancing executive control.

“The introduction or enlargement of performance-contingent rewards or punishments results in improvements in task performance, specifically attributable to enhanced executive control.”

• cites Padmala & Pessoa 2011Not checked yet

Cognitive control should be understood as a domain of reward-based decision making.

“we advocate for a view of control function that treats it as a domain of reward-based decision making.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Decision making weighs both the anticipated rewards and anticipated costs of specific control operations.

Recent work characterizes depletion as a motivational phenomenon.

“recent work has adopted an alternative perspective on the depletion effect, characterizing it as a motivational phenomenon.”

• cites Inzlicht et al. 2014Not checked yet

Incentive-induced performance improvements in control have been observed across multiple tasks, including free recall, stop-signal, task switching, working memory, context processing, and visual search.

“Similar incentive-induced performance improvements in control have been observed in a range of other tasks, tapping other facets of executive function.”

• cites Libby & Lipe 1992Not checked yet
• cites Leotti & Wager 2010Not checked yet
• cites Aarts et al. 2010Not checked yet

Depletion can be reduced or eliminated by performance incentives.

“depletion can be reduced or eliminated by performance incentives”

• cites Boksem et al. 2006Not checked yet
• cites Inzlicht et al. 2014Not checked yet
• cites Muraven & Slessareva 2003Not checked yet

Despite boundary conditions, the relationship between incentives and control is generally extremely strong.

“they nonetheless combine with the observations described previously to show that the relationship is generally extremely strong.”

Resource-based accounts rest on an additional unnecessary assumption that the dynamics of motivation reflect levels of a limited-capacity resource.

“resource-based accounts rest upon the additional-and frankly unnecessary-assumption that the dynamics of motivation reflect levels of a limited-capacity resource.”

Force-field theories such as CET can be interpreted in terms that align them with certain reward-based accounts.

“force-field theories such as CET can be interpreted in terms that align them with certain reward-based accounts.”

When equilibrium attainment is described as an optimization process, the resulting optimization process does not have a transparent psychological interpretation.

“when this principle is applied to force-field accounts of motivation, the resulting optimization process does not have a transparent psychological interpretation.”

The dual mediating role of effort exacerbates the measurement problem because it is difficult to independently estimate or manipulate the performance-related and cost-related facets of effort.

“This dual mediating role exacerbates the measurement problem, since it is difficult to independently estimate (or manipulate) the performance-related and cost-related facets of effort.”

Kool & Botvinick (2014) confirmed that labor supply theory predictions about incentive effects on effort allocation hold for cognitive effort.

“Kool & Botvinick (2014) confirmed that these predictions hold in the case of cognitive effort, just as they have been shown to hold in labor markets.”

• cites Kool & Botvinick 2014Not checked yet

Neuroscience may offer a solution to the problem of circularity associated with the construct of reward.

“neuroscience may offer a solution to the problem of circularity associated with the construct of reward.”

Absent a more compelling candidate, the resource in strength theory remains abstract, manifesting only through its supposed impact on behavior.

“Absent a more compelling candidate, the resource in strength theory and related accounts remains an abstract one, manifesting only through its supposed impact on behavior.”

Effort is a key ingredient in many theories relating motivation to cognitive control.

“Effort is a key ingredient in many (if not all) theories relating motivation to cognitive control”

• cites Bettman et al. 1990Not checked yet
• cites Bonner & Sprinkle 2002Not checked yet
• cites Camerer & Hogarth 1999Not checked yet

Resource accounts have imported a motivational factor to explain why depletion makes subjects less willing, not less able, to mobilize control.

“resource accounts have imported a motivational factor, according to which depletion makes the subject not less able to mobilize control, but simply less willing to do so”

• cites Hagger et al. 2010Not checked yet

Autonomic effects on cardiac, pupillary, and metabolic function have been used as independent measures of effort.

“autonomic effects on cardiac, pupillary, and metabolic function have been used to considerable effect as independent measures of effort”

• cites Fairclough & Houston 2004Not checked yet
• cites Silvestrini & Gendolla 2013Not checked yet
• cites Silvia et al. 2014Not checked yet

Neuroscience appears capable of playing a similar role for the effort construct.

“Neuroscience appears capable of playing a similar role when it comes to the effort construct.”

Kool et al. (2010) found a consistent preference for lower-demand task options in a demand-selection paradigm.

“Kool et al. (2010) observed a consistent preference for the lower-demand source”

• cites Kool et al. 2010Not checked yet

There has been a recent trend away from resource-based accounts of depletion toward motivational or reward-based accounts.

“These and related considerations have led to a recent trend away from resource-based accounts of the depletion effect and toward motivational or reward-based accounts”

• cites Hagger et al. 2010Not checked yet
• cites Inzlicht & Schmeichel 2012Not checked yet
• cites Kurzban et al. 2013Not checked yet

Reward-based models are more parsimonious than resource accounts.

“when compared with resource accounts, reward-based models have the advantage of being more parsimonious.”

Because CET is not framed in terms of an optimization process, it is difficult for it to explain why one strategy might be preferred over another without moving outside the scope of the force-field mechanism.

“Because the theory is not framed in terms of an optimization process, it is difficult for it to explain why one strategy might be preferred over another without moving outside the scope of the force-field mechanism.”

A similar problem attaches to the construct of effort.

“A similar though less often noted problem attaches to a second construct that is central to many reward-based theories of motivation and control, namely the construct of effort.”

If neural correlates of effort can be identified, this provides a way out of the potential circularity of effort-based explanation.

“If neural correlates of effort can be identified, this provides a way out of the potential circularity of effort-based explanation.”

Reward-based accounts explain the reluctance to exert control as stemming directly from a utility function that changes shape based on recent history of effort expenditure.

“In reward-based accounts, the reluctance stems directly from the utility function, which changes shape based on the recent history of effort expenditure”

• cites Kool & Botvinick 2014Not checked yet

Reward-based accounts of motivation and cognitive control have apparent advantages over force-field models.

“Reward-based accounts of the relations between motivation and cognitive control also have some apparent advantages over force-field models.”

Current data suggest that measurable neural correlates of subjective value exist.

“as current data in fact do suggest (Levy & Glimcher 2012)”

• cites Levy & Glimcher 2012Not checked yet

Reward-based accounts center on an optimization process in which different control operations are compared in terms of their associated net rewards.

“reward-based accounts center on an optimization process, in which different control operations are compared in terms of their associated net rewards”

• cites Shenhav et al. 2013Not checked yet

There is an obvious risk of circularity: choice is explained based on reward, but reward is inferred from choice.

“There is an obvious risk of circularity here: Choice is explained based on reward, but reward is inferred from choice.”

The force-field, resource, and reward-based perspectives can be mapped onto one another in some instances.

“it is possible to map directly among the three approaches.”

Reward-based theories of the motivation-control interface appear to have an edge over other approaches.

“reward-based theories of the motivation-control interface appear to have an edge over other approaches.”

Accumulating evidence has seriously undermined the plausibility of blood glucose as the resource underlying depletion.

“accumulating evidence has seriously undermined its plausibility”

• cites Inzlicht et al. 2014Not checked yet
• cites Kurzban et al. 2013Not checked yet

The problem becomes deeper when effort is assumed to carry an inherent cost.

“The problem becomes deeper when effort is also assumed to carry an inherent cost”

Findings from psychophysiology point the way to more central neuroscientific measures through which contact might be made with genuine mediating mechanisms.

“findings from psychophysiology point the way to more central neuroscientific measures through which contact might be made with genuine mediating mechanisms.”

Detailed behavioral analyses confirmed that this preference was not wholly driven by error avoidance or time minimization.

“Detailed behavioral analyses confirmed that this preference was not wholly driven by error avoidance or by minimization of time on task.”

• cites Kool et al. 2010Not checked yet

Reward-based theories carry a special liability attached to the construct of reward.

“reward-based theories carry their own special liability.This attaches to the construct of reward itself.”

It is not clear from a psychological point of view what force-field models are optimizing.

“it is not clear from a psychological point of view exactly what force-field models are optimizing.”

The depletion effect can be prevented by offering strong performance incentives.

“the depletion effect can be prevented by offering strong performance incentives (Muraven & Slessareva 2003).”

• cites Muraven & Slessareva 2003Not checked yet

The circularity problem remains for any psychological theory that leverages the notion of reward.

“it remains an ineluctable problem for any psychological theory that would leverage the notion of reward”

• cites Padoa-Schioppa 2011Not checked yet

High-reward conditions selectively amplify delay-period activity within the lateral PFC, parietal cortex, and other components of the brain cognitive control network.

“high-reward conditions selectively amplify delayperiod activity within the lateral PFC, parietal cortex, and other components of the brain cognitive control network.”

• cites Gilbert & Fiez 2004Not checked yet
• cites Krawczyk et al. 2007Not checked yet
• cites Pochon et al. 2002Not checked yet

Evidence suggests that the ACC may serve as a key interface between reward and control networks.

“evidence suggests that the ACC may serve as a key interface between reward and control networks”

• cites Kouneiher et al. 2009Not checked yet
• cites Vassena et al. 2014Not checked yet

These and related results provided the first neuroscientific evidence that motivational signals can modulate core components of cognitive control.

“These and related results provided the first neuroscientific evidence that motivational signals can modulate core components of cognitive control.”

DA neurons show phasic responses to reward cues.

“DA neurons show phasic responses to reward cues”

• cites Schultz 1998Not checked yet

Dixon & Christoff (2012) used fMRI adaptation to show that activity in lateral PFC is sensitive to the conjunction of task rule and trial reward value, such that activity was modulated only when there was repetition of both dimensions.

“Dixon & Christoff (2012) used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) adaptation methods to show that activity in lateral PFC is sensitive to the conjunction of task rule and trial reward value, such that activity was modulated only when there was repetition of both dimensions.”

• cites Dixon & Christoff 2012Not checked yet

Studies of reward-based decision making have identified a distinct network including ventromedial and orbitofrontal cortex, ventral striatum, amygdala, and ventral tegmental area.

“Studies of reward-based decision making have, in parallel, identified a distinct network of relevant structures including ventromedial and orbitofrontal cortex, ventral striatum (including the nucleus accumbens), and amygdala, as well as the ventral tegmental area”

• cites Bartra et al. 2013Not checked yet
• cites Clithero & Rangel 2014Not checked yet
• cites Liu et al. 2011Not checked yet

Convergent evidence suggests that these effects within the control network are driven by input from the set of brain areas referred to collectively as the reward network.

“Convergent evidence suggests that these effects within the control network are driven by input from the set of brain areas we have referred to collectively as the reward network.”

The involvement of the ventral tegmental area in this spiral pathway points to a potential role for DA in connecting control with motivation.

“its involvement in this spiral pathway points to a potential role for DA in connecting control with motivation”

• cites Aarts et al. 2011Not checked yet

A wide range of evidence indicates that the ACC is involved in reward-based decision making.

“a wide range of evidence indicates that the ACC is involved in reward-based decision making”

• cites Wallis & Kennerley 2011Not checked yet

Information from ventral cortical areas belonging to the reward network may flow to dorsal control areas via a spiral-like pathway running through the striatum via anatomically asymmetric projections to and from the ventral tegmental areas.

“information from ventral cortical areas belonging to the reward network may flow to dorsal control areas via a spiral-like pathway running through the striatum via anatomically asymmetric projections to and from the ventral tegmental areas”

• cites Haber et al. 2000Not checked yet

Neuroscience offers to play a pivotal role, occupying the critical path toward a causally adequate understanding of the motivation-control interface.

“neuroscience offers to play a more pivotal role, occupying the critical path toward a causally adequate understanding of the motivation-control interface.”

Tonic DA release has been linked to sustained motivational behaviors.

“tonic DA release has been linked to sustained motivational behaviors”

• cites Howe et al. 2013Not checked yet

PFC neurons involved in working memory display tonically elevated baseline activity during trial blocks involving relatively large or preferred rewards, persisting even through isolated trials in which task cues indicate no reward is available.

“PFC neurons involved in working memory display tonically elevated baseline activity during trial blocks involving relatively large or preferred rewards, persisting even through isolated trials in which task cues indicate that no reward is available.”

• cites Watanabe 1996Not checked yet
• cites Watanabe et al. 2002Not checked yet

Padmala & Pessoa (2011) proposed a model in which reward cues trigger motivational signals in subcortical reward structures, which then provide a source of increased drive to frontoparietal cognitive control regions, enabling more effective utilization of control processes.

“Padmala & Pessoa (2011) proposed a model in which reward cues trigger motivational signals in subcortical reward structures, which then provide a source of increased drive to frontoparietal cognitive control regions, enabling more effective utilization of control processes.”

• cites Padmala & Pessoa 2011Not checked yet

Results of incentive manipulation studies largely support the view that motivational signals enhance cognitive control functions by sharpening how task goals and other task-relevant information are represented, maintained, and utilized within lateral PFC and associated regions of the brain's control network.

“the results of such studies largely support the view that motivational signals enhance cognitive control functions by sharpening how task goals and other task-relevant information are represented, maintained, and utilized within lateral PFC and associated regions of the brain's control network.”

The ubiquity of reward-related signals in the relevant areas seems to justify viewing them together as a coherent network focused on reward processing.

“the ubiquity of reward-related signals in the relevant areas seems to justify viewing them together as a coherent network that is focused in a broad sense upon reward processing.”

Neuroscientific studies of cognitive control have identified a set of cortical and subcortical structures that appear to work together to implement control function.

“Neuroscientific studies of cognitive control have identified a set of cortical and subcortical structures that appear to work together to implement control function.”

• cites Cole & Schneider 2007Not checked yet
• cites Duncan 2010Not checked yet
• cites Niendam et al. 2012Not checked yet

Anatomical data are consistent with direct monosynaptic connections between reward and control networks.

“Anatomical data are certainly consistent with this possibility.”

• cites Barbas & Pandya 1989Not checked yet
• cites Cavada et al. 2000Not checked yet
• cites Alexander et al. 1986Not checked yet

Persson et al. (2013) reported that after a working-memory depleting task, the depleted group showed reduced task-induced activity in left inferior PFC, ACC, caudate nucleus, and cerebellum compared with a control group.

“Compared with a control group that performed a less demanding intervening task, the depleted group showed a reduction in task-induced activity in left inferior PFC, ACC, caudate nucleus, and cerebellum following the working memory task”

• cites Persson et al. (2013)Not checked yet

Wagner et al. (2013) suggests depletion can involve changes in functional connectivity between prefrontal control areas and other cortical areas.

“Another fMRI study, by Wagner et al. (2013), suggests that depletion can involve changes in the functional connectivity between prefrontal control areas and other cortical areas with which they communicate.”

• cites Wagner et al. (2013)Not checked yet

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Depletion effects involve a wholesale reduction in the vigor of cognitive control, beyond a reduction in performance monitoring following sustained cognitive exertion.

In ego depletion, error monitoring weakens at the neural level.

“Here again, a weakening of error monitoring is observed at the neural level.”

• cites Inzlicht & Gutsell (2007)Not checked yet

These results were interpreted as indicating that the ACC provides a source of excitatory drive that results in increased connectivity selectively between task-relevant processing regions.

“These results were interpreted as indicating that the ACC provides a source of excitatory drive that results in increased connectivity selectively between task-relevant processing regions.”

• cites Rowe et al. 2008Not checked yet

Hajcak et al. (2005) observed a larger ERN on trials where a large reward for correct performance was at stake relative to trials involving a smaller potential reward.

“Hajcak et al. (2005), for example, observed a larger ERN on trials where a large reward for correct performance was at stake relative to trials involving a smaller potential reward”

• cites Hajcak et al. 2005Not checked yet

In Wagner et al. (2013), after a depleting attention control task, dieters showed enhanced orbitofrontal cortex responses to food images.

“after performing a cognitively depleting attention control task, a group of dieters showed enhanced orbitofrontal cortex responses to images of food items”

• cites Wagner et al. (2013)Not checked yet

Among subjects who responded to incentives by increasing accuracy, ERN amplitude was restored.

“Among subjects who responded to these incentives primarily by increasing accuracy, a restoration of ERN amplitude was also observed.”

• cites Boksem et al. (2006)Not checked yet

The account postulates that motivation signals, reflected in terms of phasic and tonic DA release, should lead to a preferential enhancement of proactive control.

“the account postulates that motivation signals, reflected in terms of phasic and tonic DA release, should lead to a preferential enhancement of proactive control.”

• cites Braver 2012Not checked yet
• cites Braver et al. 2007Not checked yet

A wide range of studies have reported an inverse relationship between activity in the executive network and regions including ventromedial PFC and posterior cingulate cortex.

“a wide range of studies have reported an inverse relationship between activity in the executive network and a different set of regions, including ventromedial PFC and posterior cingulate cortex.”

Persson et al. (2013) observed increased activity in the homologous right inferior PFC region.

“this study also observed increased activity in the homologous right inferior PFC region”

• cites Persson et al. (2013)Not checked yet

Performance monitoring can have longer-term dynamics beyond trial-to-trial adjustments in control.

“In addition to driving trial-to-trial shifts in control, performance monitoring can display its own longer-term dynamics.”

Posterror slowing returned to baseline when monetary performance incentives were introduced.

“the magnitude of posterror slowing returned to baseline when monetary performance incentives were introduced.”

• cites Boksem et al. (2006)Not checked yet

Depletion may induce a redistribution of frontal activity rather than a simple reduction.

“which suggests that under some circumstances depletion may induce not a simple reduction in frontal function but instead a redistribution of activity.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Depletion effects involve a wholesale reduction in the vigor of cognitive control, beyond a reduction in performance monitoring following sustained cognitive exertion.

The most common finding in studies of incentive manipulations is that neural activity is modulated in a preparatory manner, prior to when responses are required.

“the most common finding in studies of incentive manipulations is that neural activity is modulated in a preparatory manner-i.e., prior to when responses are required”

• cites Braver 2012Not checked yet
• cites Braver et al. 2007Not checked yet

In that study, the depleted group also had increased reaction times on high control demand trials.

“alongside an increase in reaction times on trials associated with high control demands.”

• cites Persson et al. (2013)Not checked yet

High reward rates create an opportunity cost for sloth, such that all actions, even unrewarded ones, are performed with higher vigor in order to attain more rewards per unit time.

“High reward rates create an opportunity cost for sloth, such that all actions (even those that are unrewarded) are performed with higher vigor (i.e., faster latencies) in order to attain more rewards per unit time.”

• cites Niv et al. 2007Not checked yet

Human studies of motivation and control interactions have consistently observed incentive-linked activity in DA nuclei that predicts performance in control-demanding tasks.

“human studies of motivation and control interactions have consistently observed incentive-linked activity in DA nuclei that predicts performance in control-demanding tasks”

• cites Aarts et al. 2010Not checked yet
• cites Adcock et al. 2006Not checked yet
• cites Krebs et al. 2012Not checked yet

In a second experiment in the same report, a similar effect on ERN magnitude was observed when participants were told that their performance would be monitored and later compared with that of other participants.

“In a second experiment in the same report, a similar effect on ERN magnitude was observed when participants were told that their performance would be monitored and later compared with that of other participants.”

• cites Hajcak et al. 2005Not checked yet

Bengtsson et al. (2009) observed that participants who were informed that their cognitive ability was being assessed showed increased error-associated activity in dorsal ACC and lateral PFC relative to subjects performing the same task without the assessment cover story.

“Bengtsson et al. (2009) observed a related effect by using fMRI.Here, participants who were informed that their cognitive ability was being assessed showed increased error-associated activity in dorsal ACC and lateral PFC relative to subjects performing the same task without the assessment cover story”

• cites Bengtsson et al. 2009Not checked yet

Error monitoring weakens as time on task increases.

“In particular, error monitoring can lapse with increasing time on task.”

• cites Boksem et al. (2006)Not checked yet

These findings suggest that reward incentives primarily target proactive (i.e., preparatory) control processes.

“Together, these findings suggest that reward incentives primarily target proactive (i.e., preparatory) control processes.”

In that study, this effect was accompanied by reduced functional connectivity between orbitofrontal cortex and both right and left inferior frontal cortex.

“but this effect was accompanied by reduced functional connectivity between orbitofrontal cortex and both right and left inferior frontal cortex.”

• cites Wagner et al. (2013)Not checked yet

Similar temporal dynamics as mental fatigue are involved in ego depletion.

“Although Boksem and colleagues (2006) characterized these findings in terms of mental fatigue, similar temporal dynamics are involved in what has been referred to as ego depletion”

Inzlicht & Gutsell (2007) found reduced ERN amplitude in a Stroop task performed after a depleting emotion-suppression task.

“Inzlicht & Gutsell (2007) found a reduction in ERN amplitude in a Stroop task when this task was performed following a depleting emotion-suppression task.”

• cites Inzlicht & Gutsell (2007)Not checked yet

Boksem et al. (2006) observed a steady reduction in posterror slowing over two hours of a cue-validity task.

“Boksem et al. (2006), who observed a steady reduction in posterror slowing over the course of two hours performing a cue-validity task.”

• cites Boksem et al. (2006)Not checked yet

In the same study, ERN magnitude decreased concurrently.

“Through concurrent EEG recording, the same study revealed a concurrent reduction in the magnitude of the ERN.”

• cites Boksem et al. (2006)Not checked yet

N2 magnitude also decreased in that study.

“A parallel reduction was seen in the N2”

• cites Boksem et al. (2006)Not checked yet

The exertion of cognitive control is experienced as subjectively costly.

“The exertion of cognitive control is experienced as subjectively costly, as demonstrated in terms of demand-selection and economic discounting phenomena described above.”

The social-personality literature provides data concerning the central role of goal representations as mediating between motivation and behavior.

“the social-personality literature has provided a wealth of data concerning the central role of goal representations as mediating between motivation and behavior (Fishbach & Ferguson 2007, Hockey 1997, Locke & Latham 2013).”

• cites Fishbach & Ferguson 2007Not checked yet
• cites Hockey 1997Not checked yet
• cites Locke & Latham 2013Not checked yet

Reward circuits underlying motivational effects in control strongly overlap with those involved in other varieties of reward-based choice.

“the reward circuits underlying motivational effects in control appear to strongly overlap with those involved in other varieties of reward-based choice”

The goal construct has been considered in a relatively simplified manner within neuroscience, in terms of simple task rules.

“The goal construct has, to date, been considered in a relatively simplified manner within neuroscience (i.e., in terms of simple task rules).”

In Schouppe et al. (2014), when participants chose the higher-demand option, greater activity was observed in striatum including nucleus accumbens than when the lower-demand option was chosen.

“At moments when participants chose the higher-demand option, greater activity was observed in the striatum, including nucleus accumbens, than when the lower-demand option was chosen.”

• cites Schouppe et al. (2014)Not checked yet

The ACC is an important hub for physical effort-based decision making.

“the ACC seems to be an important hub for physical effort-based decision making”

• cites Walton et al. 2006Not checked yet
• cites Hosokawa et al. 2013Not checked yet

Cognitive effort is closely tied to engagement of the executive control network, spanning dorsolateral PFC, ACC, and intraparietal cortex.

“It seems clear, from the available evidence, that cognitive effort is closely tied to engagement of the executive control network, spanning dorsolateral PFC, ACC, and intraparietal cortex.”

McGuire & Botvinick (2010) found that the degree to which a cognitively demanding task engaged these regions predicted later avoidance of that task.

“McGuire & Botvinick (2010; see also Kool et al. 2013) found that the degree to which performance of a cognitively demanding task engaged these regions predicted the extent to which that same task would later be avoided.”

• cites McGuire & Botvinick (2010)Not checked yet
• cites Kool et al. 2013Not checked yet

Some ACC neurons code for physical effort demands during effort-based decision making.

“some ACC neurons code for physical effort demands during effort-based decision making (Hosokawa et al. 2013)”

• cites Hosokawa et al. 2013Not checked yet

Motivational effects in control reflect interactions between two large-scale brain networks, one representing reward value and the other implementing control.

“At an implementation level, the available data strongly suggest that motivational effects in control reflect interactions between two large-scale brain networks, one centrally involved in representing reward value and the other involved in implementing control function.”

Control function centers on an ongoing cost-benefit analysis, weighing potential rewards of control engagement against its inherent disutility.

“it suggests a view of control function that centers on an ongoing cost-benefit analysis, in which the potential rewards of control engagement are weighed against its inherent disutility.”

In Botvinick et al. (2009), ventral striatum activity increased at reward delivery during cognitive tasks performed to earn monetary rewards.

“Participants performed cognitive tasks to earn monetary rewards, and ventral striatum activity was found to increase at the time of reward delivery.”

• cites Botvinick et al. (2009)Not checked yet

Neuroscientific data show that depletion is not generally accompanied by overall reductions in brain activity, as a metabolic account would predict.

“Neuroscientific data, although currently sparse, encourage this reorientation by showing that depletion is not generally accompanied by overall reductions in brain activity (as a metabolic account would predict)”

Depletion involves changes in activity both in reward networks and in centers linked with control costs.

“and that it involves changes in activity both in reward networks and in centers that have been linked with control costs.”

Several neural structures, including dopaminergic projections, ventral striatum, ventromedial PFC, lateral PFC, and ACC, appear to serve as critical channels for control-relevant motivational signals.

“several neural structures, including dopaminergic projections, ventral striatum, ventromedial PFC, lateral PFC, and ACC appear to serve as critical channels for control-relevant motivational signals.”

DA levels in ventral striatum and ACC modulate effort-based decision making.

“In the ventral striatum and ACC, DA levels appear to modulate effort-based decision making”

• cites Salamone et al. 2012Not checked yet

In Magno et al. (2006), dorsal cingulate and dorsolateral PFC showed elevated activity on trials where participants chose to forgo a search rather than engage for potential reward.

“fMRI revealed elevated activity in both dorsal cingulate and dorsolateral PFC on trials in which the participant actively chose to forgo rather than engage for potential reward.”

• cites Magno et al. (2006)Not checked yet

Findings are consistent with a role for dorsal ACC and dorsolateral PFC in cost-sensitive decision making related to cognitive control.

“Together, these findings are consistent with a role for both dorsal ACC and dorsolateral PFC in cost-sensitive decision making related to the exertion of cognitive control”

ACC and dorsolateral PFC play a role in driving cognitive demand avoidance in decision making.

“Further research has revealed a role for both ACC and dorsolateral PFC in driving cognitive demand avoidance in decision making.”

Cognitive control represents a domain of reward-based decision making, with operations selected by decision mechanisms related to other reward-based choices.

“the available results from neuroscience resonate strongly with the view that cognitive control represents a domain of reward-based decision making within which operations are selected based on decision mechanisms related to those involved in other forms of reward-based choice.”

Maddox & Markman (2010) observed that nonlinear effects on cognitive control can result when incentives differ at local and global levels.

“Maddox & Markman (2010) further observed that nonlinear effects on cognitive control can result when incentives differ at local and global levels”

• cites Maddox & Markman (2010)Not checked yet

In that study, reward responses were reduced when a high degree of mental effort had been required.

“reward responses were reduced when a high degree of mental effort had been required by the task”

• cites Botvinick et al. (2009)Not checked yet

The impact of incentives on controlled information processing can depend strongly on how those incentives are framed.

“Another behavioral finding that presents an interesting opportunity for neuroscientific research is that the impact of incentives on controlled information processing can depend strongly on how those incentives are framed.”

This pattern is an apparent neural correlate of cognitive effort discounting, where subjective reward value is decremented by effort cost.

“an apparent neural correlate of cognitive effort discounting, in which the subjective value of a reward is decremented by the cost in effort required to attain it”

Ventral striatal reward responses correlated negatively with activity in ACC and dorsolateral PFC during the foregoing cognitive task.

“Botvinick and colleagues (2009) and Kool et al. (2013) observed that ventral striatal reward responses correlated negatively with the degree of activity in both ACC and dorsolateral PFC during performance of the foregoing cognitive task.”

• cites Botvinick et al. (2009)Not checked yet
• cites Kool et al. (2013)Not checked yet

Blocking DA inputs to ventral striatum and ACC shifts toward reduced willingness to engage in physical effort for reward.

“a shift toward reduced willingness to engage in physical effort for reward when DA inputs to these structures are blocked (Salamone et al. 2012).”

• cites Salamone et al. 2012Not checked yet

Existing neuroscientific results are most consistent with a reward-based perspective on control function.

“First, taken together, existing neuroscientific results appear most consistent with a rewardbased perspective on control function.”

Optogenetics has demonstrated a causal role of dopaminergic neurons in driving motivated behavior in rodent models.

“Optogenetics, for example, has already allowed a clear demonstration of the causal role of dopaminergic neurons in driving motivated behavior in rodent models (Ilango et al. 2014).”

• cites Ilango et al. 2014Not checked yet

Behavioral research has moved away from the idea that depletion reflects diminished glucose or other metabolic resource and toward motivational factors.

“behavioral research has recently begun to move away from the idea that depletion reflects diminished levels of glucose or some other metabolic resource and has turned instead to the idea that it may arise from motivational factors.”

Goal commitment, the discrete shift from goal selection to goal pursuit, has been neglected in neuroscientific work.

“One important construct in behavioral research on goals, which to our knowledge has been neglected in neuroscientific work, is that of goal commitment, the discrete shift from goal selection to goal pursuit (Nenkov & Gollwitzer 2012).”

• cites Nenkov & Gollwitzer 2012Not checked yet

Following ACC lesions, willingness to engage in physical work to earn rewards decreases.

“a decreased willingness to engage in physical work to earn rewards following ACC lesions (Walton et al. 2006)”

• cites Walton et al. 2006Not checked yet

This cost helps explain why people do not always invest maximum effort in cognitive tasks they have chosen to perform.

“This helps explain what might otherwise be a mysterious aspect of control function: the fact that people do not always invest the maximum amount of effort in cognitive tasks they have chosen to perform.”

Hosokawa et al. (2013) reported neurons in macaque ACC that coded the value of chosen actions net the cost of physical effort.

“Hosokawa et al. (2013) reported neurons in macaque ACC that coded the value of chosen actions, net the cost of physical effort.”

• cites Hosokawa et al. (2013)Not checked yet

The striatum is a plausible candidate to mediate effort-based choice, given its key role in go/no-go decisions.

“Nevertheless, the striatum would appear to be a plausible candidate to mediate in effort-based choice, given the key role it is widely believed to play in go/no-go decisions in general (Frank & Claus 2006).”

• cites Frank & Claus 2006Not checked yet

Physical effort is associated with subjective disutility.

“The idea that physical effort is associated with subjective disutility has a very long history and a rich bed of empirical support.”