Cited by 470Trace Elements in HealthIron Metabolism and DisordersImmunotoxicology and immune responses

Reprogramming of the immune system during zinc deficiency

Fraker, Pamela J., King, Louis E.·2004·Annual Review of Nutrition

Abstract

Thymic atrophy, lymphopenia, and compromised cell- and antibody-mediated responses that cause increased rates of infections of longer duration are the immunological hallmarks of zinc deficiency (ZD) in humans and higher animals. As the deficiency advances, a reprogramming of the immune system occurs, beginning with the activation of the stress axis and chronic production of glucocorticoids that accelerate apoptosis among pre-B and -T cells. This reduces lymphopoiesis and causes atrophy of the thymus. In contrast, myelopoiesis is preserved, thereby providing protection for the first line of immune defense or innate immunity. Changes in gene expression for cytokines, DNA repair enzymes, zinc transporters, signaling molecules, etc., suggest that cells of the immune system are attempting to adapt to the stress of suboptimal zinc. Better understanding of the molecular and cellular changes made in response to inadequate zinc should lead to the development of immunotherapeutic interventions.

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Crossref · 10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132454

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Authors
Fraker, P. J., & King, L. E.
Affiliations
Michigan State University (US)
Venue
Annual Review of Nutrition
Published
2004-07-14
Volume
24
Issue
1
Pages
277-298
ISSN
  • 0199-9885 (ISSN-L)
  • 1545-4312
OpenAlex
W2102050228
Cited by
470
References
66
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 32
FWCI
1.53
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Annual Review of Nutrition (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health
  • National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (DK-55, 289-25)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Trace Elements in Health
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Hematology › Iron Metabolism and Disorders
  • Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immunotoxicology and immune responses
Keywords
zinc deficiency, immune reprogramming, thymic atrophy, lymphopenia, glucocorticoids, stress axis, apoptosis, lymphocyte development, myelopoiesis, innate immunity, cytokine gene expression, DNA repair enzymes, zinc transporters, infection susceptibility
MeSH terms
Antibody Formation, Erythropoiesis, Gene Expression Regulation, Glucocorticoids, Humans, Immune System, Immunity, Cellular, Zinc, Apoptosis, Myelopoiesis

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