Regulation of Iron Metabolism by Hepcidin
Abstract
▪ Abstract Hepcidin, a peptide hormone made in the liver, is the principal regulator of systemic iron homeostasis. Hepcidin controls plasma iron concentration and tissue distribution of iron by inhibiting intestinal iron absorption, iron recycling by macrophages, and iron mobilization from hepatic stores. Hepcidin acts by inhibiting cellular iron efflux through binding to and inducing the degradation of ferroportin, the sole known cellular iron exporter. Synthesis of hepcidin is homeostatically increased by iron loading and decreased by anemia and hypoxia. Hepcidin is also elevated during infections and inflammation, causing a decrease in serum iron levels and contributing to the development of anemia of inflammation, probably as a host defense mechanism to limit the availability of iron to invading microorganisms. At the opposite side of the spectrum, hepcidin deficiency appears to be the ultimate cause of most forms of hemochromatosis, either due to mutations in the hepcidin gene itself or due to mutations in the regulators of hepcidin synthesis. The emergence of hepcidin as the pathogenic factor in most systemic iron disorders should provide important opportunities for improving their diagnosis and treatment.
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Once secreted, HAMP circulates and reaches the duodenum and spleen where it tags the iron exporter FPN1 for internalization from the cell membrane and subsequent degradation in the proteasome.
“Once secreted, HAMP circulates and reaches the duodenum and spleen where it tags the iron exporter FPN1 for internalization from the cell membrane and subsequent degradation in the proteasome (Nemeth and Ganz, 2006).”
From Iron in infection and immunity (2020) · cites this paper as Nemeth and Ganz, 2006
The presence of Fpn1 in the absorptive epithelium is under negative control of hepcidin, which is mainly secreted by hepatocytes in response to high circulating and tissue amounts of iron or upon stimulation by inflammatory mediators.
“The presence of Fpn1 in the absorptive epithelium is under negative control of hepcidin, which is mainly secreted by hepatocytes in response to high circulating and tissue amounts of iron or upon stimulation by inflammatory mediators [171, 229].”
From “Pumping iron”—how macrophages handle iron at the systemic, microenvironmental, and cellular levels (2017) · cites this paper as [171]
The key to systemic iron homeostasis lies with hepcidin (HAMP) regulation.
“The key to systemic iron homeostasis lies with hepcidin (HAMP) regulation. 37”
From The battle for iron in enteric infections (2020) · cites this paper as [37]
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Tanno, T., Bhanu, N. V., Oneal, P. A., Goh, S.-H., Staker, P., Lee, Y. T., Moroney, J. W., Reed, C. H., Luban, N. L., Wang, R.-H., et al. (2007) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm1629 · Cited by 854 · see citing works
Self-citationMutations in TMPRSS6 cause iron-refractory iron deficiency anemia (IRIDA)
Finberg, K. E., Heeney, M. M., Campagna, D. R., Aydınok, Y., Pearson, H. A., Hartman, K. R., Mayo, M. M., Samuel, S. M., Strouse, J. J., Markianos, K., et al. (2008) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng.130 · Cited by 675 · see citing works
UK guidelines on the management of iron deficiency in pregnancy
Pavord, S. R., Myers, B., Robinson, S. E., Allard, S., Strong, J., & Oppenheimer, C. A. (2012) · British Journal of Haematology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.2011.09012.x · Cited by 606 · see citing works
The serine protease TMPRSS6 is required to sense iron deficiency
Du, X., She, E., Gelbart, T., Truksa, J., Lee, P., Xia, Y., Khovananth, K., Mudd, S., Mann, N., Moresco, E. M. Y., et al. (2008) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1157121 · Cited by 578 · see citing works
Roxadustat for Anemia in Patients with Kidney Disease Not Receiving Dialysis
Chen, N., Hao, C., Peng, X., Lin, H., Yin, A., Hao, L., Tao, Y., Liang, X., Liu, Z., Xing, C., et al. (2019) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa1813599 · Cited by 582 · see citing works
Kell, D. B. (2009) · BMC Medical Genomics · doi:10.1186/1755-8794-2-2 · Cited by 554 · see citing works
“In the liver and elsewhere, many aspects of iron metabolism are regulated by a recently discovered 25amino acid polypeptide called hepcidin [163; 186; 190; 212; 230-255] that acts in part as a negative regulator of iron efflux [256] by causing the internalisation of ferroportin [257-261].”
BackgroundCopper and iron disorders of the brain
Madsen, E., & Gitlin, J. D. (2007) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.30.051606.094232 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
Metals, oxidative stress and neurodegeneration: A focus on iron, manganese and mercury
Farina, M., Ávila, D. S., da Rocha, J. B. T., & Aschner, M. (2012) · Neurochemistry International · doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2012.12.006 · Cited by 558 · see citing works
Raffatellu, M., George, M. D., Akiyama, Y., Hornsby, M. J., Nuccio, S.-P., Paixao, T. A., Butler, B. P., Chu, H., Santos, R. L., Berger, T., et al. (2009) · Cell Host & Microbe · doi:10.1016/j.chom.2009.03.011 · Cited by 525 · see citing works
“One host strategy for controlling colonization of unwanted microbes is to limit the availability of iron, an essential nutrient, by sequestering this trace element both systemically by hepcidin-mediated acute phase responses (Ganz, 2006; Nemeth and Ganz, 2006) and locally by high-affinity iron binding proteins, includ…”
BackgroundErythroblastic islands: niches for erythropoiesis
Chasis, J. A., & Mohandas, N. (2008) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood-2008-03-077883 · Cited by 506 · see citing works
Viral infection and iron metabolism
Drakesmith, H., & Prentice, A. (2008) · Nature Reviews Microbiology · doi:10.1038/nrmicro1930 · Cited by 469 · see citing works
“The molecular mechanisms that control intestinal absorption are not fully understood, but the important role of the peptide hormone hepcidin in this process is generally accepte”
BackgroundFerroportin and Iron Regulation in Breast Cancer Progression and Prognosis
Pinnix, Z. K., Miller, L. D., Wang, W., D’Agostino, R., Kute, T., Willingham, M. C., Hatcher, H., Tesfay, L., Sui, G., Di, X., et al. (2010) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3001127 · Cited by 448 · see citing works
“Our results are concordant with emerging evidence of the importance of ferroportin in ironhomeostasis, both at an organismal level in transmitting the signals from hepcidin to the systemic iron-regulatory network (46) and in regulating iron homeostasis in cells (17).”
Differential regulation of iron homeostasis during human macrophage polarized activation
Recalcati, S., Locati, M., Marini, A., Santambrogio, P., Zaninotto, F., De Pizzol, M., Zammataro, L., Girelli, D., & Cairo, G. (2010) · European Journal of Immunology · doi:10.1002/eji.200939889 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
UK guidelines on the management of iron deficiency in pregnancy
Pavord, S. R., Daru, J., Prasannan, N., Robinson, S. E., Stanworth, S. J., & Girling, J. (2019) · British Journal of Haematology · doi:10.1111/bjh.16221 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
“Data are emerging on the use of serum hepcidin (Nemeth & Ganz, 2006), however, reference ranges and the correlation of hepcidin levels with clinical outcomes are unknown (Koenig et al, 2014) and there is insufficient evidence to support its use in pregnancy.”
BackgroundOxidative Stress, Plant Natural Antioxidants, and Obesity
Pérez-Torres, I., Castrejón-Téllez, V., Soto, M. E., Rubio-Ruiz, M. E., Manzano-Pech, L., & Guarner‐Lans, V. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22041786 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
Lactoferrin: a natural Glycoprotein involved in iron and inflammatory homeostasis
Rosa, L., Cutone, A., Lepanto, M., Paesano, R., & Valenti, P. (2017) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms18091985 · Cited by 376 · see citing works
“Therefore AI, characterized by hypoferremia in the blood despite suitable iron stores [27], is very difficult to cure in the absence of a contemporary decreasing of serum IL-6 levels.”
BackgroundLiver iron concentrations and urinary hepcidin in -thalassemia
Origa, R., Galanello, R., Ganz, T., Giagu, N., Maccioni, L., Faa, G., & Nemeth, E. (2007) · Haematologica · doi:10.3324/haematol.10842 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
Self-citationIron in infection and immunity
Nairz, M., & Weiss, G. (2020) · Molecular Aspects of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.mam.2020.100864 · Cited by 359 · see citing works
Iron in fatty liver and in the metabolic syndrome: A promising therapeutic target
Dongiovanni, P., Fracanzani, A. L., Fargion, S. R., & Valenti, L. V. C. (2011) · Journal of Hepatology · doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2011.05.008 · Cited by 360 · see citing works
“It has been reported that in DIOS iron absorption is decreased and hepcidin, the hormone that acts by decreasing intestinal iron absorption and recycling from macrophages [33], is increased compared to healthy controls, indicating that iron compartmentalization in monocytes is likely related to a relatively preserved…”
BackgroundOxidative Stress and Iron Homeostasis: Mechanistic and Health Aspects
Galaris, D., & Pantopoulos, K. (2008) · Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences · doi:10.1080/10408360701713104 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
Biomarkers of Nutrition for Development (BOND)—Iron Review
Lynch, S. R., Pfeiffer, C. M., Georgieff, M., Brittenham, G. M., Fairweather‐Tait, S. J., Hurrell, R. F., McArdle, H. J., & Raiten, D. J. (2018) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/nxx036 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
“Hypoxia therefore reduces hepcidin synthesis by decreasing BMP-6 by two mechanisms: HJV antagonism by sHJV, and augmentation of martriptase-2 cleavage (122).”
BackgroundTransfusion and risk of acute kidney injury in cardiac surgery
Karkouti, K. (2012) · British Journal of Anaesthesia · doi:10.1093/bja/aes422 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
Zhang, D.-L., Hughes, R. M., Ollivierre-Wilson, H., Ghosh, M. C., & Rouault, T. A. (2009) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2009.03.006 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
“As mammals do not have a dedicated iron secretory pathway, organisms regulate body iron stores largely by regulating intestinal iron absorption, in part through the hepcidin-ferroportin interaction (Nemeth and Ganz, 2006; Darshan and Anderson, 2007; Wrighting and Andrews, 2008).”
Besarab, A., Provenzano, R., Hertel, J., Zabaneh, R. I., Klaus, S. J., Lee, T. T., Leong, R., Hemmerich, S., Yu, K.-H. P., & Neff, T. B. (2015) · Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation · doi:10.1093/ndt/gfv302 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
Iron Acquisition and Transcriptional Regulation
Kaplan, C. D., & Kaplan, J. (2009) · Chemical Reviews · doi:10.1021/cr9001676 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Miura, K., Taura, K., Kodama, Y., Schnabl, B., & Brenner, D. A. (2008) · Hepatology · doi:10.1002/hep.22486 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Importance of Iron Chelation in Free Radical-Induced Oxidative Stress and Human Disease
Jomová, K., & Valko, M. (2011) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/138161211798072463 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Provenzano, R., Besarab, A., Wright, S., Dua, S., Zeig, S., Nguyen, P., Poole, L., Saikali, K. G., Saha, G. C., Hemmerich, S., et al. (2016) · American Journal of Kidney Diseases · doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2015.12.020 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Iron homeostasis and toxicity in retinal degeneration
He, X., Hahn, P., Iacovelli, J., Wong, R., King, C., Bhisitkul, R., Massaro-Giordano, M., & Dunaief, J. L. (2007) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2007.07.004 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
“Most of these mutations affect hepcidin transcription and lead to hepcidin deficiency (Nemeth and Ganz, 2006).”
BackgroundQuality counts: new parameters in blood cell counting
Briggs, C. (2009) · International Journal of Laboratory Hematology · doi:10.1111/j.1751-553x.2009.01160.x · Cited by 260 · see citing works
“This is an acute phase reactant which prevents iron absorption from the gastrointestinal tract, its release from hepatic stores and its recycling within the reticuloendothelial system (Nemeth & Ganz, 2006).”
BackgroundCancer cell iron metabolism and the development of potent iron chelators as anti-tumour agents
Richardson, D. R., Kalinowski, D. S., Lau, S. L., Jansson, P. J., & Lovejoy, D. B. (2008) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects · doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2008.04.003 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
“Thus, low serum Fe results in greater FPN1 expression and high serum Fe causes low FPN1 expression as a result of FPN1 internalisation [37].”
BackgroundThe Role of Iron and Siderophores in Infection, and the Development of Siderophore Antibiotics
Page, M. G. P. (2019) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciz825 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
“Iron uptake in the small intestine is regulated by hepcidin, an oligopeptide hormone synthesized in the liver [23, 24].”
BackgroundNeto, L. B. D. S., Piardi, D. S., Söder, S., Rohde, L. E. P., Pereira-Barretto, A. C., de Albuquerque, D. C., Bocchi, E. A., Vilas‐Boas, F., Moura, L. Z., Montera, M. W., et al. (2013) · International Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.04.181 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, the role of hepcidin in patients with HF is still controversial, as there are evidences of increased hepcidin in patients with HF and anemia [16,17] as well as evidences of the opposite [18].”
BackgroundPinto, J. P., Ribeiro, S., Pontes, H., Thowfeequ, S., Tosh, D., Carvalho, F. D., & Porto, G. (2008) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood-2007-08-106195 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
“Introduction Hepcidin has been described as the central regulator of iron homeostasis and deficiencies in hepcidin are associated with several iron-related disorders.(1) Hepcidin modulates iron homeostasis by inducing the internalization and degradation of ferroportin,(2) the single known cellular iron exporter, expre…”
BackgroundThe long history of iron in the Universe and in health and disease
Sheftel, A. D., Mason, A. B., & Ponka, P. (2011) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects · doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2011.08.002 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
“The unusually active research effort by investigators scattered all over the world has revealed that hepcidin is a “master regulator” of organismal iron homeostasis [277–279].”
BackgroundReducing TMPRSS6 ameliorates hemochromatosis and β-thalassemia in mice
Guo, S., Casu, C., Gardenghi, S., Booten, S. L., Aghajan, M., Peralta, R. Q., Watt, A., Freier, S., Monia, B. P., & Rivella, S. (2013) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci66969 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Hurrell, R. F., Ranum, P. M., de Pee, S., Biebinger, R., Hulthén, L., Johnson, Q. W., & Lynch, S. R. (2010) · Food and Nutrition Bulletin · doi:10.1177/15648265100311s102 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
“The mechanisms controlling iron absorption and the central role of the hepcidin/ferroportin axis have been elucidated recently [15].”
BackgroundAntioxidants Mediate Both Iron Homeostasis and Oxidative Stress
Imam, M. U., Zhang, S., Ma, J., Wang, H., & Wang, F. (2017) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu9070671 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
“At the cellular level, however, regulatory molecules such as ferroportin and hepcidin contribute to iron regulation [23,24].”
BackgroundHuss, J. M., Garbacz, W. G., & Xie, W. (2015) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Basis of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.06.016 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Iron depletion limits intracellular bacterial growth in macrophages
Paradkar, P. N., De Domenico, I., Durchfort, N., Zohn, I., Kaplan, J., & Ward, D. M. (2008) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood-2007-12-126854 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
17β-Estradiol Inhibits Iron Hormone Hepcidin Through an Estrogen Responsive Element Half-Site
Yang, Q., Jian, J., Katz, S., Abramson, S. B., & Huang, X. (2012) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2011-2045 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
“Hepcidin controls serum iron concentration and tissue iron distribution by inhibiting intestinal iron absorption and preventing iron from recycling and mobilization of various tissues through ferroportin (12).”
BackgroundThe pivotal role of astrocytes in the metabolism of iron in the brain
Dringen, R., Bishop, G. M., Koeppe, M., Dang, T. N., & Robinson, S. R. (2007) · Neurochemical Research · doi:10.1007/s11064-007-9375-0 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
“There is now widespread agreement that hepcidin plays a central role in regulating the availability of extracellular iron [21, 22].”
BackgroundThe pathophysiology and consequences of red blood cell storage
Orlov, D., & Karkouti, K. (2014) · Anaesthesia · doi:10.1111/anae.12891 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Nairz, M., Schleicher, U., Schroll, A., Sonnweber, T., Theurl, I., Ludwiczek, S., Talasz, H., Brandacher, G., Moser, P. L., Muckenthaler, M. U., et al. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.20121946 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Ma, S., Dielschneider, R. F., Henson, E. S., Xiao, W., Choquette, T., Blankstein, A. R., Chen, Y., & Gibson, S. B. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0182921 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Prolonged red cell storage before transfusion increases extravascular hemolysis
Rapido, F., Brittenham, G. M., Bandyopadhyay, S., Carpia, F. L., L’Acqua, C., McMahon, D. J., Rebbaa, A., Wójczyk, B. S., Netterwald, J., Wang, H., et al. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci90837 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
“Hepcidin, the master regulator of iron homeostasis, is regulated by iron and inflammation (14).”
BackgroundInfluentialIron Regulation: Macrophages in Control
Sukhbaatar, N., & Weichhart, T. (2018) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph11040137 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
“It is a peptide hormone expressed mainly in the liver by hepatocytes and undergoes proteolytic processing to yield a bioactive molecule that is secreted into the bloodstream [31,54,55].”
BackgroundHedenus, M., Birgegård, G., Näsman, P., Ahlberg, L., Karlsson, T., Lauri, B., Lundin, J., Lärfars, G., & Österborg, A. (2007) · Leukemia · doi:10.1038/sj.leu.2404562 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Hepcidin Regulation of Iron Transport
Collins, J. F., Wessling‐Resnick, M., & Knutson, M. D. (2008) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.108.096347 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
“Papanikolaou G, Tzilianos M, Christakis JI, Bogdanos D, Tsimirika K, MacFarlane J, Goldberg YP, Sakellaropoulos N, Ganz T, Nemeth E. Hepcidin in iron overload disorders.”
BackgroundInfluentialGaly, B., Ferring-Appel, D., Kaden, S., Gröne, H.-J., & Hentze, M. W. (2008) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2007.10.006 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
“Pumping iron”—how macrophages handle iron at the systemic, microenvironmental, and cellular levels
Nairz, M., Theurl, I., Swirski, F. K., & Weiss, G. (2017) · Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00424-017-1944-8 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
“control of hepcidin, which is mainly secreted by hepatocytes in response to high circulating and tissue amounts of iron or upon stimulation by inflammatory mediators [171, 229].”
BackgroundHepcidin and Iron Homeostasis during Pregnancy
Koenig, M. D., Tussing-Humphreys, L. M., Day, J., Cadwell, B., & Nemeth, E. (2014) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu6083062 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
“Fetal-derived hepcidin may play a role in the regulation of Fpn expressed at the basolateral side of the syncytiotrophoblast [31] and determine the rate of iron entry into fetal circulation [35].”
BackgroundSelf-citationIron regulation and erythropoiesis
Nemeth, E. (2008) · Current Opinion in Hematology · doi:10.1097/moh.0b013e3282f73335 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Self-citationIron in arterial plaque: A modifiable risk factor for atherosclerosis
Sullivan, J. L. (2009) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects · doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2008.06.005 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
McClung, J. P., Karl, J. P., Cable, S. J., Williams, K. W., Nindl, B. C., Young, A. J., & Lieberman, H. R. (2009) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.27774 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Hepcidin regulation: ironing out the details
Domenico, I. D., Ward, D. M., & Kaplan, J. (2007) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci32701 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
The Regulation of Cellular Iron Metabolism
Chua, A. C. G., Graham, R. M., Trinder, D., & Olynyk, J. K. (2007) · Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences · doi:10.1080/10408360701428257 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Iron deficiency in sports-definition, influence on performance and therapy
Clénin, G., Cordes, M., Huber, A., Schumacher, Y. O., Noack, P., Scales, J., & Kriemler, S. (2015) · Swiss Medical Weekly · doi:10.4414/smw.2015.14196 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
“Hepcidin has been established as a key regulator of iron absorption from the enterocytes and release from the macrophages; however, it has not entered routine testing [16,21].”
BackgroundKarkouti, K., Grocott, H. P., Hall, R. N., Jessen, M. E., Kruger, C., Lerner, A. B., MacAdams, C. L., Mazer, C. D., de Médicis, É., Myles, P. S., et al. (2014) · Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d anesthésie · doi:10.1007/s12630-014-0302-y · Cited by 167 · see citing works
The molecular basis of hepcidin-resistant hereditary hemochromatosis
Fernandes, A. O., Preza, G. C., Phung, Y., Domenico, I. D., Kaplan, J., Ganz, T., & Nemeth, E. (2009) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood-2008-03-146134 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Self-citationGeissler, C. A., & Singh, M. K. (2011) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu3030283 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
“Hepcidin deficiency is a characteristic of mutations in the HAMP (hepcidin antimicrobial peptide) gene but most patients with genetic hemochromatosis have alterations in the HFE (high iron Fe) gene, or, rarely in the transferrin receptor 2 (TFR2) or hemojuvelin (HJV) genes, suggesting that these proteins are involved…”
BackgroundThankachan, P., Walczyk, T., Muthayya, S., Kurpad, A. V., & Hurrell, R. F. (2008) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/87.4.881 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
“Hepcidin is also thought to play a regulatory role in iron metabolism by directly affecting the ferroportin transporter within the mucosal basolateral membrane and by preventing iron efflux into the blood (40).”
BackgroundTussing-Humphreys, L. M., Pustacioglu, C., Nemeth, E., & Braunschweig, C. L. (2012) · Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1016/j.jada.2011.08.038 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
“Iron is an essential element that acts as a key component of oxygen-carrying proteins, is a vital player in cellular metabolism, and is essential to cell growth and differentiation (1).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationFinberg, K. E., Whittlesey, R. L., Fleming, M. D., & Andrews, N. C. (2010) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood-2009-05-224808 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Elevated Systemic Hepcidin and Iron Depletion in Obese Premenopausal Females
Tussing-Humphreys, L. M., Nemeth, E., Fantuzzi, G., Freels, S. A., Guzman, G., Holterman, A. L., & Braunschweig, C. L. (2009) · Obesity · doi:10.1038/oby.2009.319 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
“It is increased by inflammation and elevated body iron levels and decreased by erythropoietic activity and hypoxia (13,14).”
InfluentialSelf-citationNorthrop‐Clewes, C. A. (2008) · Annals of Clinical Biochemistry International Journal of Laboratory Medicine · doi:10.1258/acb.2007.007167 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Selective modulation of TLR4-activated inflammatory responses by altered iron homeostasis in mice
Wang, L., Harrington, L., Trebicka, E., Shi, H. N., Kagan, J. C., Hong, C. C., Lin, H. Y., Babitt, J. L., & Cherayil, B. J. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci39939 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
“Hepcidin expression is upregulated by iron loading and inflammation, whereas it is inhibited by iron deficiency, anemia, and hypoxia (14, 15).”
Ferroportin is a manganese‐responsive protein that decreases manganese cytotoxicity and accumulation
Yin, Z., Jiang, H., Lee, E.-S., Ni, M., Erikson, K. M., Milatović, D., Bowman, A. B., & Aschner, M. (2009) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06534.x · Cited by 160 · see citing works
“2003), and post-translational regulation by the action of hepcidin (Nemeth and Ganz 2006).”
BackgroundWang, L., Johnson, E. E., Shi, H. N., Walker, W. A., Wessling-Resnick, M., & Cherayil, B. J. (2008) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.181.4.2723 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
“Hepcidin production increases with iron loading and inflammation, and decreases with iron deficiency, anemia, and hypoxia (16, 17).”
BackgroundA genome-wide association analysis of serum iron concentrations
Tanaka, T., Roy, C. N., Yao, W., Matteini, A. M., Semba, R. D., Arking, D. E., Walston, J. D., Fried, L. P., Singleton, A., Guralnik, J. M., et al. (2009) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood-2009-07-232496 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Iron and Zinc Nutrition in the Economically-Developed World: A Review
Lim, K., Riddell, L. J., Nowson, C. A., Booth, A., & Szymlek‐Gay, E. A. (2013) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu5083184 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
“Higher concentrations of hepcidin prevent ingested iron from entering the bloodstream by trapping iron in enterocytes which are naturally shed every two days [112], thereby preventing body iron from escalating to dangerous levels.”
BackgroundReticulocyte hemoglobin content
Mast, A. E., Blinder, M. A., & Dietzen, D. J. (2007) · American Journal of Hematology · doi:10.1002/ajh.21090 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
“Hepcidin is an acute phase reactant that prevents absorption of iron from the gastrointestinal tract, its release from hepatic stores, and its recycling within the reticuloendothelial system [15].”
BackgroundInsulin resistance impairs nigrostriatal dopamine function
Morris, J. K., Bomhoff, G. L., Gorres, B. K., Davis, V. A., Kim, J., Lee, P., Brooks, W. M., Gerhardt, G. A., Geiger, P. C., & Stanford, J. A. (2011) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.06.005 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
“We also measured SN levels of hepcidin, which can control ferroportin through posttranslational modification (Nemeth and Ganz, 2006).”
MethodRhodes, M., Kopsombut, P., Bondurant, M. C., Price, J. O., & Koury, M. J. (2007) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood-2007-06-098178 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
“Three other proteins found on the surface of stromal macrophages have been associated with enhanced proliferation of erythroid progenitor cells: ( 1 ) c-kit ligand (stem-cell factor), a transmembrane protein that binds c-kit (stem-cell factor receptor) on erythroid cells.”
InfluentialStefanova, D., Raychev, A., Arezes, J., Ruchala, P., Gabayan, V., Skurnik, M., Dillon, B. J., Horwitz, M. A., Ganz, T., Bulut, Y., et al. (2017) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood-2017-03-772715 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Self-citationIron regulatory proteins secure mitochondrial iron sufficiency and function
Galy, B., Ferring-Appel, D., Sauer, S. W., Kaden, S., Lyoumi, S., Puy, H., Kölker, S., Gröne, H.-J., & Hentze, M. W. (2010) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2010.06.007 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
“At the systemic level, the hepatic ‘‘iron hormone’’ hepcidin (Hamp) has emerged as the key regulator of blood iron levels (Nemeth and Ganz, 2006).”
BackgroundDomenico, I. D., Lo, E., Ward, D. M., & Kaplan, J. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0900453106 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
“Western analysis was performed using either mouse anti-FLAG antibody (1:10,000; Sigma-Aldrich), rabbit anti-Fpn (1:1000), mouse anti-tubulin (1:1000; GeneTex), mouse anti-phosphotyrosine clone 16F4 (1:500; Calbiochem), or mouse anti-Jak2 (1:1000; Cell Signaling), followed by either peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-mous…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMacrophage Iron, Hepcidin, and Atherosclerotic Plaque Stability
Sullivan, J. L. (2007) · Experimental Biology and Medicine · doi:10.3181/0703-mr-54 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
“Lower levels are associated with anemia, hypoxia, iron deficiency, and hereditary hemochromatosis (24, 26, 27, 32).”
BackgroundCrusade for iron: iron uptake in unicellular eukaryotes and its significance for virulence
Šuťák, R., Lesuisse, E., Tachezy, J., & Richardson, D. R. (2008) · Trends in Microbiology · doi:10.1016/j.tim.2008.03.005 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
The pathophysiology and pharmacology of hepcidin
Ruchala, P. P., & Nemeth, E. (2014) · Trends in Pharmacological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tips.2014.01.004 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
“Hepcidin production increases in response to iron loading [11,12], and this prevents further absorption of dietary iron and the development of iron overload.”
BackgroundSelf-citationIncreased iron content and RNA oxidative damage in skeletal muscle with aging and disuse atrophy
Hofer, T., Marzetti, E., Xu, J., Seo, A. Y., Güleç, Ş., Knutson, M. D., Leeuwenburgh, C., & Dupont‐Versteegden, E. E. (2008) · Experimental Gerontology · doi:10.1016/j.exger.2008.02.007 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
“, 2005), the master regulator of whole-body iron homeostasis (Nemeth and Ganz, 2006).”
Estrogen Regulates Hepcidin Expression via GPR30-BMP6-Dependent Signaling in Hepatocytes
Ikeda, Y., Tajima, S., Izawa-Ishizawa, Y., Kihira, Y., Ishizawa, K., Tomita, S., Tsuchiya, K., & Tamaki, T. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0040465 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
“Hepcidin is a secreted protein derived from hepatocytes, and it has been identified as an important regulator of iron metabolism [4].”
BackgroundAndang’o, P. E. A., Osendarp, S. J. M., Ayah, R., West, C. E., Mwaniki, D. L., Wolf, C. A. D., Kraaijenhagen, R. J., Kok, F. J., & Verhoef, H. (2007) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(07)60817-4 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Mitchell, C. J., Shawki, A., Ganz, T., Nemeth, E., & Mackenzie, B. (2014) · American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00348.2013 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Self-citationMatriptase-2 (TMPRSS6): a proteolytic regulator of iron homeostasis
Ramsay, A. J., Hooper, J. D., Folgueras, A. R., Velasco, G., & López-Otı́n, C. (2009) · Haematologica · doi:10.3324/haematol.2008.001867 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
“Consistently, HH disorders result from inadequate hepcidin production relative to body iron stores.(99) Conversely, elevated hepcidin levels have been described in iron deficiency anemia patients that are insensitive to oral iron therapy and”
BackgroundDavid, S., Jhelum, P., Ryan, F., Jeong, S. Y., & Kroner, A. (2021) · Antioxidants and Redox Signaling · doi:10.1089/ars.2021.0218 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“The cell surface localization of Fpn is also regulated by a 25 amino acid peptide hormone called hepcidin, which is produced by the liver and delivered systemically via the circulation (49, 126).”
Iron and Porphyrin Trafficking in Heme Biogenesis
Schultz, I. J., Chen, C., Paw, B. H., & Hamza, I. (2010) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.r110.119503 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Sendamarai, A. K., Ohgami, R. S., Fleming, M. D., & Lawrence, C. M. (2008) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0801318105 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
The Chelating Ability of Plant Polyphenols Can Affect Iron Homeostasis and Gut Microbiota
Scarano, A., Laddomada, B., Blando, F., Santis, S. D., Verna, G., Chieppa, M., & Santino, A. (2023) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox12030630 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“At a systemic level, an important protein regulating iron homeostasis is represented by hepcidin, synthetized by the liver, which regulates the iron absorption, distribution, and storage in the different body districts [29].”
BackgroundHepcidin antagonists for potential treatments of disorders with hepcidin excess
Poli, M., Asperti, M., Ruzzenenti, P., Regoni, M., & Arosio, P. (2014) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2014.00086 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
“Although mammalian hepcidin attracted most interest, it should be mentioned that hepcidin has been described also in fishes, where the size and cysteines are conserved, but the overall amino acid sequence identity with the human one is only 50% (Nemeth and Ganz, 2006).”
BackgroundMembrane-Anchored Serine Proteases in Vertebrate Cell and Developmental Biology
Szabo, R., & Bugge, T. H. (2011) · Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.1146/annurev-cellbio-092910-154247 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“Both processes are controlled systemically by a hepatic peptide hormone, hepcidin (reviewed in Andrews 2008, Nemeth & Ganz 2006).”
BackgroundExcess Adiposity, Inflammation, and Iron-Deficiency in Female Adolescents
Tussing-Humphreys, L. M., Liang, H., Nemeth, E., Freels, S. A., & Braunschweig, C. A. (2009) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/j.jada.2008.10.044 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“Hepcidin controls dietary iron absorption and distribution of iron in the body by regulating ferroportin, the channel that exports iron from cells into plasma ( 32 ).”
BackgroundSelf-citationIron Regulatory Proteins: From Molecular Mechanisms to Drug Development
Recalcati, S., Minotti, G., & Cairo, G. (2010) · Antioxidants and Redox Signaling · doi:10.1089/ars.2009.2983 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“5) (142).”
InfluentialKroot, J. J., Hendriks, J. C. M., Laarakkers, C. M., Klaver, S. M., Kemna, E., Tjalsma, H., & Swinkels, D. W. (2009) · Analytical Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.ab.2009.03.039 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“The typical response of the body to low iron levels is to decrease hepcidin production, which in turn increases iron absorption from the diet and iron release from macrophages [20].”
BackgroundIron-Refractory Iron Deficiency Anemia
Finberg, K. E. (2009) · Seminars in Hematology · doi:10.1053/j.seminhematol.2009.06.006 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Benefits and Risks of Iron Supplementation in Anemic Neonatal Pigs
Lipiński, P., Starzyński, R. R., Canonne‐Hergaux, F., Tudek, B., Oliński, R., Kowalczyk, P., Dziaman, T., Thibaudeau, O., Gralak, M. A., Smuda, E., et al. (2010) · American Journal Of Pathology · doi:10.2353/ajpath.2010.091020 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Retinal iron homeostasis in health and disease
Song, D., & Dunaief, J. L. (2013) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2013.00024 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
“Hereditary hemochromatosis can also result from mutations in Hepc, hemojuvelin (responsible for juvenile hemochromatosis), or TfR 2 (Pietrangelo, 2005; Nemeth and Ganz, 2006).”
BackgroundZhang, A., Anderson, S. A., Wang, J., Yang, F., DeMaster, K., Ahmed, R., Nizzi, C. P., Eisenstein, R. S., Tsukamoto, H., & Enns, C. A. (2010) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood-2010-06-287292 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
- Authors
- Nemeth, E., & Ganz, T.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Nutrition
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2006-08-01
- Volume
- 26
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 323-342
- ISSN
- 0199-9885 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-4312
- OpenAlex
- W2153145418
- Cited by
- 756
- References
- 89
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 57 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 41
- FWCI
- 6.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annual Review of Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (DK065029, R01DK065029)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Hematology › Iron Metabolism and Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Ferroptosis and cancer prognosis
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neurological diseases and metabolism
- Keywords
- hepcidin, iron metabolism, iron homeostasis, ferroportin, intestinal iron absorption, hepatic iron stores, anemia of chronic disease, iron deficiency anemia, hemochromatosis, hypoxia, infection, inflammation, iron efflux
- MeSH terms
- Hemochromatosis, Homeostasis, Humans, Inflammation, Iron, Iron Metabolism Disorders, Antimicrobial Cationic Peptides, Hepcidins
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