The DOI matches its Crossref record; 68 of the 68 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
What Do We Know About Democratization After Twenty Years?
Abstract
This essay synthesizes the results of the large number of studies of late–20th-century democratization published during the last 20 years. Strong evidence supports the claims that democracy is more likely in more developed countries and that regime transitions of all kinds are more likely during economic downturns. Very few of the other arguments advanced in the transitions literature, however, appear to be generally true. This study proposes a theoretical model, rooted in characteristics of different types of authoritarian regimes, to explain many of the differences in democratization experience across cases in different regions. Evidence drawn from a data set that includes 163 authoritarian regimes offers preliminary support for the model proposed.
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“Authoritarian governments often use repression, such as torture or killings, strategically when faced with civil unrest. 41”
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Alemán, J. A., & Yang, D. D. (2011) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414011405460 · Cited by 94
“Military dictatorships: Similarly, Geddes (1999) has argued that types of dictatorship have direct implications for the resiliency of such regimes.”
BackgroundPerformance and persistence of autocracies in comparison: introducing issues and perspectives
Croissant, A., & Wurster, S. (2013) · Contemporary Politics · doi:10.1080/13569775.2013.773199 · Cited by 90
“The seminal study by Geddes (1999) on the relationship between the forms of autocracy and the probability of regime change, as well as Linz’ (2000) call to the research community to pay more attention to the new varieties of semi-democratic or authoritarian rule that were emerging, provided the…”
BackgroundWahman, M. (2011) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2011.05.009 · Cited by 87
When human capital threatens the Capitol
Savage, J. D., & Caverley, J. D. (2017) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343317713557 · Cited by 94
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Kalyvitis, S. C., & Vlachaki, I. (2010) · Contemporary Economic Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1465-7287.2009.00154.x · Cited by 91
“Several studies, including Huntington (1991), Collier and Levitsky (1997), Geddes (1999), and Papaioannou and Siourounis (2008), distinguish between “full” and “partial” democratization episodes; in a parallel manner, Diamond, Linz, and Lipset (1990) and Gasiorowski (1995) classify countries to…”
Stabilizing Authoritarian Rule: The Role of International Organizations
Cottiero, C., & Haggard, S. M. (2023) · International Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1093/isq/sqad031 · Cited by 88
“Military-led autocracies are more likely to be short-lived regimes of emergency or have the latitude to return to the barracks (Geddes, 1999); they are thus more likely to democratize than other autocratic regime types (Magaloni and Kricheli, 2010).”
BackgroundAlbrecht, H. (2014) · Mediterranean Politics · doi:10.1080/13629395.2014.932537 · Cited by 86
“…in classical readings on personal interests and grievances among military personnel (Finer, 1962; Thompson, 1980; Decalo, 1990) and connects to more recently developed agency analyses (Agüero, 1995; Geddes, 1999; Feaver, 2003; Lee, 2009; Pion-Berlin, Esparza & Grisham, 2012; Albrecht & Ohl, 2014).”
BackgroundThe Strategic Origins of Electoral Authoritarianism
Miller, M. K. (2017) · British Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s0007123417000394 · Cited by 87
The Quality of Democracy in Eastern Europe: Public Preferences and Policy Reforms
Roberts, A. L. (2009) · Cited by 85
Sticks, Stones, and Molotov Cocktails: Unarmed Collective Violence and Democratization
Kadivar, M. A., & Ketchley, N. (2018) · Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/2378023118773614 · Cited by 158
The wrong kind of crisis: Why oil booms and busts rarely lead to authoritarian breakdown
Smith, B. B. (2006) · Studies in Comparative International Development · doi:10.1007/bf02686303 · Cited by 84
“Acentral tenet of democratic transition studies is that authoritarian regimesare more likely to collapse during economic crises (Geddes, 1999a; Haggard and Kaufman, 1995; van de Walle, 2001: 239-241).”
BackgroundThe Gatekeeper State: Limited Economic Reforms and Regime Survival in Cuba, 1989–2002
Corrales, J. (2007) · Palgrave Macmillan US eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-137-12353-4_4 · Cited by 85
von Soest, C., & Wahman, M. (2014) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343314551081 · Cited by 85
The Contradiction of Modernization: A Conditional Model of Endogenous Democratization
Kennedy, R. (2010) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1017/s0022381610000162 · Cited by 87
What the Democratization Literature Says—or Doesn’t Say—About Postwar Democratization
Bermeo, N. G. (2003) · Global Governance A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations · doi:10.1163/19426720-00902006 · Cited by 82
Hudson, V. M., Bowen, D. L., & Nielsen, P. L. (2015) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055415000271 · Cited by 82
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BackgroundExecutive Constraint, Political Stability and Economic Growth
Cox, G. W., & Weingast, B. R. V. (2015) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414017710254 · Cited by 93
“Both literatures focus on democracies but similar claims have often been made about autocracies (e.g., Geddes, 1999, p. 119; Haggard & Kaufman, 1995).”
Rain and the Democratic Window of OpportunityPreprint
Brückner, M., & Ciccone, A. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1107156 · Cited by 82
“To make results more easily comparable, we therefore use the negative of the t to t+1 change in the FH political rights index so that positive changes denote more political rights and negative changes less political rights.”
Dominant Party Rule and Legislative Leadership in Authoritarian Regimes
Reuter, O. J., & Turovsky, R. F. (2011) · Party Politics · doi:10.1177/1354068812448689 · Cited by 85
“Indeed, one of the most robust findings in the neo-institutional authoritarian literature is that dominant party regimes are more long-lived than other types of regime (Brownlee, 2007; Gandhi and Przeworski, 2007; Geddes, 1999; Magaloni, 2008; Smith, 2005).”
BackgroundTheorising Kenya's protracted transition to democracy
Brown, S. (2004) · Journal of Contemporary African Studies · doi:10.1080/0258900042000283494 · Cited by 79
“In the personalist and single-party regimes of Africa, factionalisation often does not result in a transition (Geddes 1999).”
BackgroundOpposition Coalitions and Democratization by Election
Wahman, M. (2012) · Government and Opposition · doi:10.1017/gov.2012.5 · Cited by 77
“In this model, there will be three variables accounting for three types of popular protests: demonstrations, strikes and riots.9 Numerous authors have stressed the importance of popular protests for electoral outcomes (for example, Geddes 1999; O’Donnell and Schmitter 1986).”
Background(2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108560566 · Cited by 79
Knutsen, C. H., & Nygård, H. M. (2015) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12168 · Cited by 82
Hard times and regime failure: autocratic responses to economic downturns
Tanneberg, D., Stefes, C. H., & Merkel, W. (2013) · Contemporary Politics · doi:10.1080/13569775.2013.773206 · Cited by 79
“Instead, it would suggest that economic turmoil is more likely to lead to autocratic regime failure in the way of elite splits (Geddes 1999).”
BackgroundViolence and Restraint in Civil War: Civilian Targeting in the Shadow of International Law
Stanton, J. A. (2016) · Cited by 81
Revisiting economic shocks and coups
Kim, N. K. (2016) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002713520531 · Cited by 128
When can external actors influence democratization? Leverage, linkages, and gatekeeper elites
Tolstrup, J. (2012) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2012.666066 · Cited by 85
Coups and nascent democracies: the military and Egypt's failed consolidation
Nassif, H. B. (2016) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2016.1142533 · Cited by 80
The Elements of Surprise: Assessing Burma's Double-Edged détente
Slater, D. (2014) · South East Asia Research · doi:10.5367/sear.2014.0206 · Cited by 78
Taggart, P. A. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315108070-6 · Cited by 77
A Flawed Framework: Why the Liberal International Order Concept Is Misguided
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Politics and Aids in Africa: Research Agendas in Political Science and International Relations
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The Institutions Curse: Natural Resources, Politics, and Development
Menaldo, V. (2016) · Cited by 75
Popular support for an undemocratic regime: the changing views of Russians
(2012) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.49-4117 · Cited by 75
Which Dictators Produce Quality of Government?
Charron, N., & Lapuente, V. (2011) · Studies in Comparative International Development · doi:10.1007/s12116-011-9093-0 · Cited by 73
Democratic Capital: The Nexus of Political and Economic Change
Persson, T., & Tabellini, G. (2006) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w12175 · Cited by 74
Smith, B. B., & Waldner, D. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108776837 · Cited by 75
de Mesquita, B. B., & Smith, A. M. (2015) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002715603100 · Cited by 74
Do Output Contractions Trigger Democratic Change?Preprint
Burke, P. J., & Leigh, A. (2010) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1570426 · Cited by 78
Diffusion or Confusion? Clustered Shocks and the Conditional Diffusion of Democracy
Houle, C., Kayser, M. A. L. A. D., & Xiang, J. (2016) · International Organization · doi:10.1017/s002081831600028x · Cited by 71
“Geddes 1999.”
Do Output Contractions Trigger Democratic Change?
Burke, P. J., & Leigh, A. (2010) · American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics · doi:10.1257/mac.2.4.124 · Cited by 176
Military Conscription and Nonviolent Resistance
Cebul, M. D., & Grewal, S. (2022) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00104140211066209 · Cited by 70
A question of trust: military defection during regime crises in Benin and Togo
Morency-Laflamme, J. (2017) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2017.1375474 · Cited by 73
Economic Openness and Territorial Politics in China
Sheng, Y. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511761966 · Cited by 68
Classifying political regimes 1800–2016: a typology and a new dataset
Anckar, C., & Fredriksson, C. (2018) · European Political Science · doi:10.1057/s41304-018-0149-8 · Cited by 68
Does regime type matter for the impact of democracy aid on democracy?
Cornell, A. (2012) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2012.659021 · Cited by 67
Communicating authoritarian elite cohesion
Schedler, A., & Hoffmann, B. (2015) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2015.1095181 · Cited by 68
On the Outside Looking In: Secrecy and the Study of Authoritarian Regimes*
Barros, R. (2016) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.12350 · Cited by 67
How Dictatorships Work: Power, Personalization, and Collapse
Geddes, B., Wright, J., & Frantz, E. (2018) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 67
Self-citationWinning the Game of Thrones: Leadership Succession in Modern Autocracies
Meng, A. (2020) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002720978807 · Cited by 66
“A small number of studies that mention non-hereditary solutions to succession argue that ruling parties play an important role in facilitating peaceful leadership transitions (Brownlee 2007; Geddes 1999; Magaloni 2008).”
BackgroundMethodTerrorism and the Fate of Dictators
Aksoy, D., Carter, D. B., & Wright, J. (2015) · World Politics · doi:10.1017/s0043887115000118 · Cited by 68
Coordination, Learning, and Coups
Little, A. T. (2015) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002714567953 · Cited by 66
Information Politics and Propaganda in Authoritarian Societies
Rosenfeld, B. R. M., & Wallace, J. (2024) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041322-035951 · Cited by 77
Haddad, M. A. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139013420 · Cited by 66
Comparing autocracies: theoretical issues and empirical analyses
Köllner, P., & Kailitz, S. (2013) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2013.738859 · Cited by 67
Technological development and political stability: Patenting in Latin America and the Caribbean
Waguespack, D. M., Birnir, J. K., & Schroeder, J. (2005) · Research Policy · doi:10.1016/j.respol.2005.07.006 · Cited by 66
“Recently scholars have emphasized transfer of power as an important tangible qualification for democracy ( Geddes, 1999; Przeworki et al., 2000; Geddes, 2003).”
BackgroundLiou, Y.-M., & Musgrave, P. (2013) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414013512607 · Cited by 65
“Many have posited a relationship between economic growth and democratization (Boix & Stokes, 2003; Geddes, 1999; Kennedy, 2010), which we measure with the Penn World Tables’ Real GDP Per Capita.”
Göbel, C. (2010) · European Political Science · doi:10.1057/eps.2010.47 · Cited by 64
Rough days in democracies: Comparing protests in democracies
Nam, T. (2007) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.2006.00645.x · Cited by 63
Guliyev, F. (2011) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2011.563115 · Cited by 70
Who Defects? Unpacking a Defection Cascade from Russia's Dominant Party 2008–12
Hale, H., & Colton, T. (2017) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055416000642 · Cited by 43
“A burgeoning literature broadly agrees political parties are often a linchpin of the survival of any such regime (Brownlee 2007; Geddes 1999; Huntington 1968; Svolik 2012).”
BackgroundReframing the Guardianship Dilemma: How the Military’s Dual Disloyalty Options Imperil Dictators
Paine, J. (2022) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055422000089 · Cited by 63
New democracies and the risk of civil conflict
Cook, S. J., & Savun, B. (2016) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343316660756 · Cited by 64
“First, this coding criterion is consistent with the original Geddes (1999) coding.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Rise of Local Politics: A Global Review
Galès, P. L. (2021) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102158 · Cited by 62
The determinants of democracy: a sensitivity analysis
Rød, E. G., Knutsen, C. H., & Hegre, H. (2019) · Public Choice · doi:10.1007/s11127-019-00742-z · Cited by 67
“Many studies focus on how parties and elections in autocracies (Geddes 1999) or the forms of democratic governments (presidential or parliamentary systems, see Linz 1990; Cheibub 2 See Table A-2 in the online appendix for an overview.”
BackgroundWhat has Eastern Europe taught us about the Democratization literature (and vice versa)?
Kopecký, P., & Mudde, C. (2000) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6765.00524 · Cited by 62
Give them toys? Military allocations and regime stability in transitional democracies
Powell, J. M., Faulkner, C. M., Dean, W., & Romano, K. (2018) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2018.1450389 · Cited by 63
“…per soldier may not be an ideal measure for organizational interest, it avoids the numerous concerns related to changes in military expenditures. civilian regimes and we wish to avoid reporting an autocratic effect that this driven solely by military regimes (Geddes 1999; Belkin and Schofer 2003).”
BackgroundHow Do Inclusionary and Exclusionary Autocracies Affect Ordinary People?
Neundorf, A., Gerschewski, J., & Olar, R.-G. (2019) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414019858958 · Cited by 64
“Instead of focusing on the institutional and elite power architecture (Geddes, 1999; Wright, & Frantz, 2014; Hadenius & Teorell, 2007) and the effect of formal and informal institutions in autocratic settings (Gandhi, 2008; Magaloni, 2008; Schedler, 2013; Svolik, 2012), we focus on examining the…”
BackgroundContesting Autocracy: Repression and Opposition Coordination in Venezuela
Jiménez, M. (2021) · Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0032321721999975 · Cited by 68
Punishment and Politicization in the International Human Rights Regime
Terman, R., & Byun, J. (2021) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055421001167 · Cited by 61
“…could endanger incumbents by fostering political competition or mobilizing independent groups that are likely to challenge those in power (Geddes 1999; Haggard and Kaufman 2016; Linz and Stepan 1996; Snyder and Ballentine 1996).4 Migrant rights also typify norms that carry high…”
BackgroundEck, K. (2015) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002715576746 · Cited by 67
Beyond Local Protectionism: China's State–Business Relations in the Last Two Decades
Wang, Y. (2016) · The China Quarterly · doi:10.1017/s030574101600031x · Cited by 63
How to Sell a Coup: Elections as Coup Legitimation
Grewal, S., & Kureshi, Y. (2018) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002718770508 · Cited by 61
Hess, S. (2013) · International Political Science Review · doi:10.1177/0192512112460258 · Cited by 58
“…problem in the current literature on authoritarianism, scholars have tended to focus on elite-level factors such as competition between majority and minority factions within regimes (see Geddes, 1999) and to ignore protest actors as independent agents of popular mobilization in their own right.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAuthoritarian Survival, Resilience, and the Selectorate Theory
Gallagher, M. E., & Hanson, J. K. (2013) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139565028.011 · Cited by 61
Accessing the state: Executive constraints and credible commitment in dictatorship
Meng, A. (2019) · Journal of Theoretical Politics · doi:10.1177/0951629819875515 · Cited by 58
Chandra, S., & Kammen, D. A. (2002) · World Politics · doi:10.1353/wp.2003.0001 · Cited by 59
Hess, S. (2015) · Government and Opposition · doi:10.1017/gov.2014.39 · Cited by 57
“Published by Government and Opposition Limited and Cambridge University Press lower-ranking officers tend to remain on the sidelines, fearing that intervention would result in disorder within the military or even civil war between factions (Geddes 1999: 125–9).”
BackgroundInfluentialBodea, C., Garriga, A. C., & Higashijima, M. (2017) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/701831 · Cited by 63
“Why dominant-party regimes should be more vulnerable to fiscal policy limits As discussed above, dictatorships with a dominant party are especially resilient to regime change (Geddes 1999).”
BackgroundThe political position generator—A new instrument for measuring political ties in China
Stockmann, D., Hartman, K., & Luo, T. (2020) · Social Networks · doi:10.1016/j.socnet.2020.05.004 · Cited by 58
Authoritarian Regimes: Stability, Change, and Pathways to Democracy, 1972–2003
Hadenius, A., & Teorell, J. (2024) · doi:10.7274/26126128 · Cited by 58
“Good Types” in Authoritarian Elections
Manion, M. (2014) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414014537027 · Cited by 57
“Empirically, the wager has paid off for dictators: Authoritarian elections are associated not with democratic transition (Brownlee, 2007) but with regime longevity (Geddes, 1999).”
BackgroundLegislatures and Policy Making in Authoritarian Regimes
Williamson, S., & Magaloni, B. (2020) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414020912288 · Cited by 64
“The past two decades have seen an explosion of research on authoritarian regimes, much of which explores how institutions like elections, legislatures, and parties affect these political systems (e.g., Blaydes, 2011; Brancati, 2014; Gandhi & Lust-Okar, 2009; Geddes, 1999; Magaloni, 2006; Magaloni & Kricheli, 2010; Pep…”
BackgroundTaking to the Streets Theory and Evidence on Protests under AuthoritarianismPreprint
Kricheli, R., Livne, Y., & Magaloni, B. (2011) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 59
Coercive capacity and the durability of the Chinese communist state
Wang, Y. (2014) · Communist and Post-Communist Studies · doi:10.1016/j.postcomstud.2014.01.009 · Cited by 57
“Single-party regimes survive longer than military regimes or personalistic dictatorships because of elite cohesion (Geddes, 1999).”
BackgroundThe Durability of Client Regimes
Casey, A. E. (2020) · World Politics · doi:10.1017/s0043887120000039 · Cited by 59
Foreign-Imposed Regime Change, State Power and Civil War Onset, 1920–2004
Peic, G., & Reiter, D. (2010) · British Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s0007123410000426 · Cited by 57
Maerz, S. F. (2018) · Government and Opposition · doi:10.1017/gov.2018.17 · Cited by 59
“Barbara Geddes (1999) argues that singleparty regimes are more resilient than other regime types because party cadres are more likely to negotiate.”
BackgroundExplaining Democratic Deterioration in Venezuela through Nested Inference
Coppedge, M. (2001) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511791116.011 · Cited by 57
Human Rights Prosecutions and Autocratic Survival
Escribà‐Folch, A., & Wright, J. (2015) · International Organization · doi:10.1017/s0020818314000484 · Cited by 55
“Geddes 1999.”
BackgroundInfluentialDictators in Exile: Explaining the Destinations of Ex-Rulers
Escribà‐Folch, A., & Krcmaric, D. (2017) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/688225 · Cited by 55
“Note that the sample is smaller when using Geddes et al.’s (2014) data since they cover only 154 countries (namely, those with over 1 million inhabitants in 2009).”
MethodHoist on their own petards? The reinvention and collapse of authoritarian successor parties
Grzymała-Busse, A. M. (2017) · Party Politics · doi:10.1177/1354068817740336 · Cited by 56
Seizing power: the strategic logic of military coups
(2014) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.185976 · Cited by 56
Too good to be true? United Nations peacebuilding and the democratization of war-torn states
Steinert, J., & Grimm, S. (2014) · Conflict Management and Peace Science · doi:10.1177/0738894214559671 · Cited by 54
“A detailed description of all variables is presented in Online Appendix1 1.”
BackgroundMethodPatterns of Regime Breakdown Since the French Revolution
Djuve, V. L., Knutsen, C. H., & Wig, T. (2019) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414019879953 · Cited by 55
“Regarding the potential determinants of regime breakdown, some studies highlight structural factors, such as (various) regime-type characteristics (c.f. Gates et al., 2006; Geddes, 1999), poverty (Prze-worski and Limongi, 1997), and natural resource abundance (Ross, 2012).”
BackgroundInstitutionalising electoral uncertainty and authoritarian regime survival
Bernhard, M. H., Edgell, A. B., & Lindberg, S. I. (2019) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6765.12355 · Cited by 60
“This classification allows us to test contentions about the relative stability of institutionalised one-party regimes when compared to other forms of dictatorship (Geddes 1999; Geddes et al. 2014).”
Citizen Support for Democratic and Autocratic Regimes
Mauk, M. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198854852.001.0001 · Cited by 55
Yılmaz, İ., Shipoli, E. A., & Demir, M. (2021) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2021.1891412 · Cited by 60
Neuberger, I., Kroezen, J., & Tracey, P. (2021) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2020.0517 · Cited by 60
The Dictator's Dilemma at the Ballot Box
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Metadata
- Authors
- Geddes, B.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Geddes, Barbara
- ORCID
- Geddes, Barbara
- Venue
- Annual Review of Political Science
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 1999-06
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 115-144
- ISSN
- 1094-2939 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-1577
- OpenAlex
- W2166749687
- Cited by
- 2,025
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 85 · 2025: 119 · 2024: 127 · 2023: 114 · 2022: 133 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 173 · 2019: 128 · 2018: 132 · 2017: 100 · 2016: 95 · 2015: 101 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 101 · 2012: 84
- FWCI
- 21.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annual Review of Political Science (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Political Conflict and Governance
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Political Theory and Democracy
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
- Keywords
- democratization, tipping points, authoritarian regimes, political regimes, economic downturn, economic development and democracy, late 20th century
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