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Cited by 183Dermatology and Skin DiseasesHair Growth and Disordersmelanin and skin pigmentation

Human skin: an independent peripheral endocrine organ

Zouboulis, Christos C.·2000·Hormone Research in Paediatrics
DOI 10.1159/000053265
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Abstract

The historical picture of the endocrine system as a set of discrete hormone-producing organs has been substituted by organs regarded as organized communities in which the cells emit, receive and coordinate molecular signals from established endocrine organs, other distant sources, their neighbors, and themselves. In this wide sense, the human skin and its tissues are targets as well as producers of hormones. Although the role of hormones in the development of human skin and its capacity to produce and release hormones are well established, little attention has been drawn to the ability of human skin to fulfil the requirements of a classic endocrine organ. Indeed, human skin cells produce insulin-like growth factors and -binding proteins, propiomelanocortin derivatives, catecholamines, steroid hormones and vitamin D from cholesterol, retinoids from diet carotenoids, and eicosanoids from fatty acids. Hormones exert their biological effects on the skin through interaction with high-affinity receptors, such as receptors for peptide hormones, neurotransmitters, steroid hormones and thyroid hormones. In addition, the human skin is able to metabolize hormones and to activate and inactivate them. These steps are overtaken in most cases by different skin cell populations in a coordinated way indicating the endocrine autonomy of the skin. Characteristic examples are the metabolic pathways of the corticotropin-releasing hormone/propiomelanocortin axis, steroidogenesis, vitamin D, and retinoids. Hormones exhibit a wide range of biological activities on the skin, with major effects caused by growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor-1, neuropeptides, sex steroids, glucocorticoids, retinoids, vitamin D, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ligands, and eicosanoids. At last, human skin produces hormones which are released in the circulation and are important for functions of the entire organism, such as sex hormones, especially in aged individuals, and insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins. Therefore, the human skin fulfils all requirements for being the largest, independent peripheral endocrine organ.

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Crossref · 10.1159/000053265

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  • The pilosebaceous unit has the necessary tools to use sex steroid precursors for transformation into more potent sex hormones.

    “The pilosebaceous unit has all the necessary tools to utilize sex steroid precursors for the transformation to more potent sex hormones [91, 92].”

    From Steroidogenesis in the skin: Implications for local immune functions (2013) · cites this paper as [91]

  • In skin, androgens act through androgen receptors to trigger signaling cascades.

    “In skin, androgens mediate their effects through interaction with the androgen receptors (AR) triggering cascades of networks [91, 106, 187–189].”

    From Steroidogenesis in the skin: Implications for local immune functions (2013) · cites this paper as [91]

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Authors
Zouboulis, C. C.
Affiliations
Freie Universität Berlin (DE)
Corresponding author
Zouboulis, Christos C.
ORCID
Zouboulis, Christos C.
Venue
Hormone Research in Paediatrics
Publisher
S. Karger AG
Published
2000
Volume
54
Issue
5-6
Pages
230-242
ISSN
  • 1663-2818 (ISSN-L)
  • 1663-2826
DOI
10.1159/000053265
OpenAlex
W2100794705
Cited by
183
References
113
Citations by year
2026: 5 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 5
FWCI
1.83
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
Locations
  • Hormone Research in Paediatrics (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Dermatology › Dermatology and Skin Diseases
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Urology › Hair Growth and Disorders
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › melanin and skin pigmentation
Keywords
insulin-like growth factor, IGF binding proteins, catecholamines, steroidogenesis, vitamin D, retinoids, eicosanoids, hormone receptors, hormone metabolism, corticotropin-releasing factor, glucocorticoids, sex steroids, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, neuropeptides, skin aging
MeSH terms
Endocrine Glands, Hormones, Humans, Receptors, Cell Surface, Skin Physiological Phenomena

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