The Hype Cycle of Working Memory Training
Open accessAbstract
Seventeen years and hundreds of studies after the first journal article on working memory training was published, evidence for the efficacy of working memory training is still wanting. Numerous studies show that individuals who repeatedly practice computerized working memory tasks improve on those tasks and closely related variants. Critically, although individual studies have shown improvements in untrained abilities and behaviors, systematic reviews of the broader literature show that studies producing large, positive findings are often those with the most methodological shortcomings. The current review discusses the past, present, and future status of working memory training, including consideration of factors that might influence working memory training and transfer efficacy.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that working memory training has followed a “hype cycle”: early claims of broad far transfer have not held up, and the strongest positive findings often come from methodologically weaker studies. The paper concludes that training reliably improves trained and similar tasks, but evidence for broad cognitive or behavioral benefits remains wanting.
Key findings
- Working memory training produces near transfer—improvement on the trained tasks and closely related variants—but not consistent far transfer to untrained abilities or behaviors.
- In Melby-Lervåg et al. (2016), studies with small samples and passive control groups yielded an average fluid-intelligence effect of \(g = .33\), whereas methodologically stronger studies with larger samples and active controls yielded \(g = .01\).
- Foster et al. (2017) found that high-working-memory subjects performed better on day one of training and improved more on training tasks than low-working-memory subjects, but there was only limited near transfer and no far transfer to fluid intelligence for either group.
- A meta-analysis of tDCS-plus-training studies yielded no benefits of tDCS and only near transfer; expectation manipulations in Tsai et al. (2018) did not affect n-back transfer, though that study did not address far transfer.
Methods
- Design: narrative review of the working memory training literature, framed through the Gartner “hype cycle” metaphor.
- Data: published and unpublished working memory training studies, including meta-analyses and individual experiments; no new empirical data are reported.
- Main analysis: qualitative synthesis of evidence on near versus far transfer, methodological quality, individual differences, expectations, spacing, and combined interventions.
Limitations
- The paper states that many training studies have small sample sizes, passive control groups, subjective and/or unblinded rating measures, and hypothesis-inconsistent pretest-posttest patterns.
- It also states that most individual-difference studies had small samples for detecting moderated effects, that responder analyses linking training gain to transfer gain are uninformative, and that specific findings such as Foroughi et al. (2016) and Wang et al. (2014) need replication with larger samples and stronger controls.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it does not provide a new systematic meta-analysis or primary data, and its conclusions depend on the selected literature and the author’s interpretive framing.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 37 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingcitation
Individuals with higher working memory at pretest show the largest improvements on working memory training tasks.
“Examining cognitive ability, recent research with my colleagues has shown that individuals that are higher in working memory at pretest show the largest improvements on the training tasks (Foster et al., 2017; Wiemers, Redick, & Morrison, 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Foster et al., 2017
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- cites Wiemers, Redick, & Morrison, 2018
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- Findingcitation
Some second-wave studies highlighted methodological limitations of the initial working memory training studies.
“some of which highlighted methodological limitations of the initial studies on the topic (Shipstead, Redick, & Engle, 2012)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Shipstead, Redick, & Engle, 2012
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- Findingcitation
Transfer to fluid intelligence was larger for subjects recruited with brain training advertisements than for subjects recruited with neutral fliers.
“Foroughi et al. (2016) found that transfer to fluid intelligence was larger for the subjects recruited using the brain training advertisements compared to the neutral fliers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Foroughi et al. (2016)
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- Findingcitation
After the initial positive studies, a second wave of largely negative research failed to demonstrate far transfer.
“However, after the initial flurry of positive studies, a second wave of largely negative, challenging research that failed to demonstrate far transfer emerged (Chooi & Thompson, 2012; Harrison et al., 2013; Redick et al., 2013; Sprenger et al., 2013; Thompson et al., 2013)”
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- cites Harrison et al., 2013
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- cites Redick et al., 2013
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- Findingcitation
At the meta-analytic level, there is no relationship between the rate of training improvement and the amount of change in intelligence scores from pretest to posttest.
“At the meta-analytic level, Au et al. (2015) found no relationship between the rate of training improvement and the amount of change in intelligence scores from pretest to posttest.”
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- Findingcitation
In methodologically sound studies with larger samples and active control groups, the average effect size of working memory training on fluid intelligence was g = .01, indicating no effect.
“However, in the more methodologically sound studies with larger sample sizes and active control groups, the average effect size was g = .01 – no effect whatsoever.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016
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- Findingcitation
A survey found that most naïve subjects believed they would improve their cognitive functioning from computerized cognitive training.
“A survey asking naïve subjects their beliefs about computerized cognitive training found that the majority of subjects thought they would improve their cognitive functioning (Rabipour & Davidson, 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rabipour & Davidson, 2015
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- Findingcitation
The strongest claims that working memory training works often come from studies with the most problematic design and data issues.
“Unfortunately, the strongest claims that working memory training “works” often come from studies with the most problematic design and data issues (Table 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
Studies of grit, implicit theory of intelligence, and need for cognition have found no evidence that these variables influence transfer after working memory training.
“Multiple studies (e.g., Guye, De Simoni, & von Bastian, 2017; Jaeggi et al., 2014; Sprenger et al., 2013; Thompson et al., 2013) have examined the potential role of variables such as grit, implicit theory of intelligence (i.e., fixed vs. growth mindset) and need for cognition, but those studies have found no evidence that such variables influence transfer after working memory training”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Guye, De Simoni, & von Bastian, 2017
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- cites Jaeggi et al., 2014
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- cites Sprenger et al., 2013
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- Findingcitation
In the broader literature, studies that report large positive working memory training findings often have the most methodological shortcomings.
“systematic reviews of the broader literature show that studies producing large, positive findings are often those with the most methodological shortcomings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
Self-report surveys at posttest suggested that subjects engage in multiple strategies across different working memory training sessions.
“My colleagues and I tried to determine this using self-report surveys administered at posttest, which suggested subjects engage in multiple strategies across different working memory training sessions (Redick et al., 2013).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Redick et al., 2013
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- Findingnone given
Theory-based approaches explaining the mechanism underlying working memory and far transfer are still lacking.
“That is, theory-based approaches explaining the mechanism that underlies working memory and far transfer are still lacking.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Many studies use a brain-as-muscle metaphor or a functional-overlap explanation for transfer between working memory and fluid intelligence.
- Rests on an assumption: The logic of many studies is that working memory training works by increasing the number of discrete representations one can hold at a time in working memory.
- Interpretationcitation
If the goal of training is to help people with working memory impairments, the finding that high-working memory subjects gained more on training tasks than low-working memory subjects might be troubling.
“Thus, our findings (Foster et al., 2017; Wiemers et al., 2018) that high-working memory subjects gained more on the training tasks than the low-working memory subjects might be troubling if the goal of training is to help those with working memory impairments.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Foster et al., 2017
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- cites Wiemers et al., 2018
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- Interpretationcitation
The evidence linking training gain and transfer task improvement is weak.
“However, the evidence linking training gain and transfer task improvement is weak.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Many individual training studies examining the relationship between training and transfer have exceedingly small samples for correlational analyses.
- Interpretationcitation
Subject expectations play a difficult role in intervention studies, including working memory training research.
“As mentioned above, one reason for using active-control groups and using objective performance outcomes and/or blinded subjective reports is the difficult role played by subject expectations in intervention studies, including working memory training research.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The working memory training literature has followed a hype-cycle pattern.
“I argue that the working memory training literature has followed what’s been labeled in other contexts, such as new technological innovations, as the ‘hype-cycle’”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Gartner Hype Cycle
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- cites Baker, Ware, Schweitzer, & Risko, 2017
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- cites Linden & Fenn, 2003
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- Interpretationreasoning
The results of Tsai et al. (2018) do not address far transfer such as fluid intelligence, reading comprehension, or ADHD symptoms.
“The results of Tsai et al. (2018) are a good first step in experimentally addressing expectations in working memory training research, but it does not address far transfer (e.g., fluid intelligence, reading comprehension, ADHD symptoms).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tsai et al. (2018)
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- Interpretationreasoning
After seventeen years and hundreds of studies, evidence that working memory training is efficacious remains insufficient.
“Seventeen years and hundreds of studies after the first working memory training journal article was published, evidence for the efficacy of working memory training is still wanting.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The bulk of the evidence indicates that working memory training is not effective in the ways claimed by the initial research.
“The bulk of the evidence indicates working memory training is not effective in the ways claimed by the initial research.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
It is unlikely that current working memory training programs will produce the large far-transfer effects seen in initial studies when tested with larger samples, expectation controls, and daily-activity transfer.
“While possible, previous research indicates that it is unlikely that working memory training programs currently in use will stand the scrutiny of larger sample sizes, procedures that control for expectations, and transfer to daily activities instead of the controlled nature of in-lab experiments to produce the large far-transfer effects seen in the initial studies in the field.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
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- May combine two claims. 12
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FindingcitationIn Wang et al. (2014), subjects with spaced training sessions showed more pretest-posttest improvement in fluid intelligence than subjects with massed sessions, although training task improvement did not vary.
“Although the amount of training task improvement did not vary, Wang et al. argued that transfer to fluid intelligence was directly related to the training schedule – subjects with spaced sessions showed more pretest-posttest improvement than subjects with massed sessions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wang, Zhou, and Shah (2014)
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FindingcitationThere is substantial evidence that practicing working memory tasks over multiple days improves performance on those and similar tasks, but not on other untrained tasks and materials.
“Seventeen years after publication of the first computerized working memory training study, there is substantial evidence that practicing working memory tasks over multiple days improves performance on those and similar tasks, but not to other untrained tasks and materials (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016
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FindingcitationIn the meta-analysis by Melby-Lervåg et al. (2016), the nonverbal ability far transfer effect size was significantly larger for passive-control groups than for active-control groups, but not for working memory near transfer.
“Indeed, in the meta-analysis by Melby-Lervåg et al. (2016), the nonverbal ability far transfer effect size was significantly larger for passive-control groups versus active-control groups, but not for working memory near transfer.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Melby-Lervåg et al. (2016)
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FindingcitationWorking memory training produces benefits on working memory tasks similar to the training materials, but not on other outcomes.
“Overall, similar to other recent meta-analyses (Sala & Gobet, 2017; Soveri, Antfolk, Karlsson, Salo, & Laine, 2017), we found that training produced benefits to working memory tasks similar to the training materials, but not to other outcomes (Figure 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Sala & Gobet, 2017
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- cites Soveri, Antfolk, Karlsson, Salo, & Laine, 2017
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FindingcitationSome studies have reported a positive relationship between training gain and transfer gain.
“Some studies have reported a positive relationship between training gain and transfer gain (e.g., Chein & Morrison, 2010; Jaeggi et al., 2011).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Chein & Morrison, 2010
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- cites Jaeggi et al., 2011
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FindingcitationCommon problems in working memory training studies include small samples, passive control groups, subjective or unblinded rating measures, and hypothesis-inconsistent pretest-posttest patterns.
“These include problems such as small sample sizes, passive control groups, subjective and/or unblinded rating measures, and hypothesis-inconsistent pretest and posttest patterns (Dougherty et al., 2015; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Rapport et al., 2013; Redick, 2015; Redick et al., 2015; Shipstead et al., 2012; Simons et al., 2016).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Dougherty et al., 2015
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- cites Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016
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- cites Rapport et al., 2013
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FindingcitationOnly limited near transfer was observed, with no evidence of far transfer to fluid intelligence for either high- or low-working memory subjects.
“Critically, only limited near transfer was observed, with no evidence of far transfer to fluid intelligence for either high- or low-working memory subjects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Foster et al., 2017
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FindingcitationHigh-working memory subjects, compared with low-working memory subjects, showed higher performance on day one of training and larger improvements on training tasks from first to last day.
“Foster et al. found that high-working memory subjects, compared to low-working memory subjects, showed higher performance on day one of training and larger improvements on the training tasks from the first to the last day.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Foster et al., 2017
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FindingcitationIn Tsai et al. (2018), the expectation manipulation did not affect transfer from n-back training to n-back tasks; the n-back training group showed transfer but the control group did not.
“Tsai et al. (2018) found for that for transfer from n-back training to n-back tasks, the expectation manipulation did not have an effect. That is, regardless of the expectation instructions that subjects received, the n-back training group showed transfer but the control group did not.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tsai et al. (2018)
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Findingnone givenPeople who repeatedly practice computerized working memory tasks improve on those tasks and on closely related variants.
“Numerous studies show that individuals who repeatedly practice computerized working memory tasks improve on those tasks and closely related variants.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingcitationA meta-analysis of published tDCS-plus-training studies found no benefits of tDCS and only near transfer.
“However, the early returns on this approach are not promising, as a meta-analysis of the small number of published tDCS+training studies to-date yielded no benefits of tDCS and only near transfer (Nilsson, Lebedev, Rydström, & Lövdén, 2017).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Nilsson, Lebedev, Rydström, & Lövdén, 2017
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PremisecitationCorrelating training gain scores and transfer gain scores, or similar responder analyses, is uninformative and should be ignored if reported.
“However, Tidwell et al. (2014) demonstrated that correlating training gain scores and transfer gain scores (or similar responder analyses) are uninformative and should be ignored if reported.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tidwell et al., 2014
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Interpretationnone givenThe results of Foroughi et al. (2016) are weakened by a small sample size and only one session of n-back training.
“However, the results of Foroughi et al. (2016) are weakened by their use of a small sample size and administration of only one session of n-back training.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Foroughi et al. (2016)
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InterpretationcitationThe spacing of training sessions might be relevant for the amount of transfer produced.
“An intriguing finding worthy of further study is that the spacing of the training sessions might be relevant for the amount of transfer produced (von Bastian & Oberauer, 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites von Bastian & Oberauer, 2014
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The paper relies on this without support.
Subjects are often recruited from informational sessions or fliers that state the study purpose is to improve cognition.
“In addition, subjects often are recruited from informational sessions or fliers that specify the purpose of the study is to improve cognition.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many individual training studies examining the relationship between training and transfer have exceedingly small samples for correlational analyses.
“In addition, many of the individual training studies examining the relationship between training and transfer using any statistical approach suffer from exceedingly small sample sizes for such correlational analyses.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many studies use a brain-as-muscle metaphor or a functional-overlap explanation for transfer between working memory and fluid intelligence.
“Instead, many studies use a metaphor that appeals to the (incorrect) idea that the brain is a muscle, or that transfer between working memory and fluid intelligence occurs because there is functional overlap in some of the brain areas involved in performance of both types of tasks.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The logic of many studies is that working memory training works by increasing the number of discrete representations one can hold at a time in working memory.
“The logic of many studies seems to be that working memory training would work by increasing the number of discrete representations one can hold at a time within working memory.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Most training studies found substantial improvement in the trained task, with little to no transfer to untrained tasks.
“Most training studies found substantial improvement in the trained task, with little to no transfer to untrained tasks.”
From Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies (2021) · cites this paper as Redick, 2019
"Far" transfer is more characteristic of studies without an active-control group.
“Others (e.g., Jacoby & Ahissar, 2013, 2015; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Redick, 2019; Sala & Gobet, 2017; Simons et al., 2016) noted that “far” transfer is more characteristic of studies without an active-control group.”
From Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies (2021) · cites this paper as Redick, 2019
The effect size of transfer to untrained tasks, if any, is small: ~0.3 standard deviations in methodologically weaker studies, ~0.01 in methodologically sound studies.
“However, the effect size of transfer to untrained tasks, if any, is small: ~0.3 standard deviations in methodologically weaker studies, ~0.01 in methodologically sound studies (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Redick, 2019).”
From Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies (2021) · cites this paper as Redick, 2019
The importance of a strategy that reduces WM requirements has been gradually acknowledged.
“Indeed, the importance of a strategy that reduces WM requirements has been gradually acknowledged (Redick, 2019).”
From Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies (2021) · cites this paper as Redick, 2019
Performance in tasks with the same structure as the trained task may be improved.
“Thus, performance in tasks with the same structure may be improved (Fellman et al., 2020; Redick, 2019), as previously reported (Linares et al., 2019).”
From Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies (2021) · cites this paper as Redick, 2019
There is some evidence that individuals with larger working memory pretraining are the ones who benefit more from training.
“There is some evidence that individuals with larger WM pretraining are the ones who benefit more from training (Foster et al., 2017; Redick, 2019; Wiemers, Redick, & Morrison, 2019).”
From Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies (2021) · cites this paper as Redick, 2019
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Is working memory training effective?
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“Seventeen years after publication of the first computerized working memory training study, there is substantial evidence that practicing working memory tasks over multiple days improves performance on those and similar tasks but not to other untrained tasks and materials (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
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Working Memory Training May Increase Working Memory Capacity but Not Fluid Intelligence
Harrison, T. L., Shipstead, Z., Hicks, K. L., Hambrick, D. Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797613492984 · Cited by 305 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…positive studies, a second wave of largely negative, challenging research that failed to demonstrate far transfer emerged (Chooi & Thompson, 2012; Harrison et al., 2013; Redick et al., 2013; Sprenger et al., 2013; Thompson et al., 2013), some of which highlighted methodological limitations of…”
Self-citationPlacebo effects in cognitive training
Foroughi, C. K., Monfort, S. S., Paczynski, M., McKnight, P. E., & Greenwood, P. M. (2016) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1601243113 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Improving Methodological Standards in Behavioral Interventions for Cognitive Enhancement
Green, C. S., Bavelier, D., Kramer, A. F., Vinogradov, S., Ulrich Ansorge, A., Ball, K., Bingel, U., Chein, J. M., Colzato, L. S., Edwards, J. D., et al. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-018-0115-y · Cited by 236 · cited 1× · see citing works
“(2016), one conclusion is that covert recruitment and double-blind research designs should become the norm in future research, instead of the outlier, if the field is truly interested in determining the possible efficacy of working memory training in the absence of placebo and expectancy effects (Green et al., 2019; S…”
Working memory training in typically developing children: A meta-analysis of the available evidence.
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2017) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000265 · Cited by 216 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Overall, similar to other recent meta-analyses (Sala & Gobet, 2017; Soveri, Antfolk, Karlsson, Salo, & Laine, 2017), Melby-Lervåg et al.’s results showed that training produced benefits to working memory tasks similar to the training materials but not to other outcomes (Figure 1).”
Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults
Chooi, W.-T., & Thompson, L. A. (2012) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2012.07.004 · Cited by 209 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…the initial flurry of positive studies, a second wave of largely negative, challenging research that failed to demonstrate far transfer emerged (Chooi & Thompson, 2012; Harrison et al., 2013; Redick et al., 2013; Sprenger et al., 2013; Thompson et al., 2013), some of which highlighted…”
Failure of Working Memory Training to Enhance Cognition or Intelligence
Thompson, T. W., Waskom, M. L., Garel, K.-L. A., Cardenas-Iniguez, C., Reynolds, G. O., Winter, R., Chang, P., Pollard, K., Lala, N., Alvarez, G. A., et al. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0063614 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
What’s Working in Working Memory Training? An Educational Perspective
Redick, T. S., Shipstead, Z., Wiemers, E. A., Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9314-6 · Cited by 132 · cited 1× · see citing works
“These include problems such as small sample sizes, passive control groups, subjective or unblinded rating measures, and hypothesis-inconsistent pretest and posttest patterns (Dougherty, Hamovitz, & Tidwell, 2016; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Rapport, Orban, Kofler, & Friedman, 2013; Redick, 2015; Redick et al., 2015; Sh…”
Self-citationNilsson, J., Lebedev, A. V., Rydström, A., & Lövdén, M. (2017) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797617698139 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Working memory training and interpreting interactions in intelligence interventions
Redick, T. S. (2015) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2015.01.014 · Cited by 107 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Atypical data patterns Significant (p .05) results can occur but be inconsistent with the predicted results if, for example, both the training and control group show a pretest–posttest decrease in IQ scores, but the decrease is significantly larger in the control group (Redick, 2015).”
Self-citationDougherty, M. R., Hamovitz, T., & Tidwell, J. W. (2016) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-015-0865-9 · Cited by 106 · cited 1× · see citing works
“and hypothesis-inconsistent pretest and posttest patterns (Dougherty et al., 2015; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Rapport et al., 2013; Redick, 2015; Redick et al., 2015; Shipstead et al., 2012; Simons et al., 2016).”
Training working memory: Limits of transfer
Sprenger, A. M., Atkins, S. M., Bolger, D. J., Harbison, J. I., Novick, J. M., Chrabaszcz, J. S., Weems, S. A., Smith, V., Bobb, S., Bunting, M. F., et al. (2013) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.07.013 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Spaced cognitive training promotes training transfer.
Wang, Z., Zhou, R., & Shah, P. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00217 · Cited by 81 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For example, Wang, Zhou, and Shah (2014) tested four separate working memory training groups, each of which completed 20 training sessions, comparing them with a control group.”
Do the effects of working memory training depend on baseline ability level?
Foster, J. L., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Draheim, C., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000426 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Self-citationGuye, S., Simoni, C. D., & von Bastian, C. C. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-017-0049-9 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Rabipour, S., & Davidson, P. S. R. (2015) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.01.002 · Cited by 67 · cited 1× · see citing works
“A survey asking naive subjects their beliefs about computerized cognitive training found that the majority of subjects thought they would improve their cognitive functioning (Rabipour & Davidson, 2015).”
The Influence of Individual Differences in Cognitive Ability on Working Memory Training Gains
Wiemers, E. A., Redick, T. S., & Morrison, A. B. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-018-0111-2 · Cited by 48 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Thus, the findings of my colleagues and I (Foster et al., 2017; Wiemers et al., 2019) that subjects with high working memory gained more on the training tasks than those with low working memory might be troubling if the goal of training is to help those with working memory impairments.”
Self-citationTidwell, J. W., Dougherty, M. R., Chrabaszcz, J. R., Thomas, R. P., & Mendoza, J. L. (2014) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-013-0560-7 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
(Un)Great Expectations: The Role of Placebo Effects in Cognitive Training
Tsai, N., Buschkuehl, M., Kamarsu, S., Shah, P., Jonides, J. J., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2018) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2018.06.001 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Individual Differences and Motivational Effects
Katz, B., Jones, M. R., Shah, P., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2016) · Cognitive Training · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-42662-4_15 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Cognitive training: Strategies and the multicomponent cognitive system.
Logie, R. H. (2012) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.07.006 · Cited by 22 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…limited, the use of different strategies depending on the current task demands is entirely consistent with the idea that the working memory system permits one to allocate attention as needed (Logie, 2012) and seemingly inconsistent with a dose-dependent relationship between training and transfer.”
Making sense of research on the neuroimage bias
Baker, D., Ware, J. M., Schweitzer, N. J., & Risko, E. F. (2015) · Public Understanding of Science · doi:10.1177/0963662515604975 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
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Toward a Science of Effective Cognitive Training
Smid, C. R., Karbach, J., & Steinbeis, N. (2020) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721420951599 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“As a result, attempts to impinge on these critical life skills have surged, but findings remain equivocal (Diamond & Ling, 2020; Redick, 2019; Titz & Karbach, 2014).”
BackgroundA critical review of research on executive functions in sport and exercise
Furley, P., Schütz, L.-M., & Wood, G. (2023) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2023.2217437 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“However, fi ndings on the e ff ectiveness of these endeavors remain equivocal (Diamond & Ling, 2020; Redick, 2019; Titz & Karbach, 2014).”
Sotola, L. K., & Credé, M. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09563-9 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“Some researchers (e.g., Boot et al. 2013; Redick 2019) have noted that treatment conditions should not be compared with passive control conditions because mechanisms other than the treatment (e.g., expectancies) might cause differences between the treatment and control groups.”
BackgroundVestberg, T., jafari, R., Almeida, R., Maurex, L., Ingvar, M., & Petrović, P. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-66180-w · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Strategy mediation in working memory training in younger and older adults
Forsberg, A., Fellman, D., Laine, M., Johnson, W., & Logie, R. H. (2020) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021820915107 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Aidman, E. (2020) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00466 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Where do you start? What should you train first, second, last? In what combinations, doses, frequency, with what recovery times? At what phase of your training cycle? If you have to choose, which ones are more important? What are the skill fade rates and refresher training requirements? This systemic picture seems mis…”
BackgroundInfluentialKnowledge generalization and the costs of multitasking
Garner, K., & Dux, P. E. (2022) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-022-00653-x · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Caetano, T., Pinho, M. S., Ramadas, E., Clara, C., Areosa, T., & Dixe, M. D. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.730165 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“There is an on-going controversy surrounding the effectiveness and clinical relevance of cognitive training that lies on the question: Is it possible for domain-specific tasks and training to impact domain-general cognitive skills? Many studies have cast doubt to the possibility of “far transfer” of any effects result…”
BackgroundThe role of working memory in long-term learning: Implications for childhood development
Forsberg, A., Adams, E. J., & Cowan, N. (2021) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/bs.plm.2021.02.001 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies
Malinovitch, T., Jakoby, H., & Ahissar, M. (2021) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-020-01824-6 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Indeed, the need for a strategy that reduces WM requirements has been gradually acknowledged (Redick, 2019).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRETRACTED: Decoding the elite soccer player’s psychological profile
Bonetti, L., Vestberg, T., Jafari, R., Seghezzi, D., Ingvar, M., Kringelbach, M. L., Filgueiras, A., & Petrović, P. (2025) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2415126122 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
RetractedIndividual Differences in Cognitive Training Research
Katz, B., Jones, M. R., Shah, P., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-39292-5_8 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Testing the Effects of 3D Multiple Object Tracking Training on Near, Mid and Far Transfer
Harris, D., Wilson, M., Smith, S. J. R., Meder, N., & Vine, S. J. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00196 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“There is considerable interest in CT from applied researchers and practitioners, as the possibility of developing domain-general abilities to improve cognitive performance is highly attractive in both sporting and military settings (Blacker et al., 2018; Walton et al., 2018; Redick, 2019).”
BackgroundMinihan, S., Samimi, Z., & Schweizer, S. (2021) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2021.103974 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Exploring Individual Differences as Predictors of Performance Change During Dual-N-Back Training
Ørskov, P. T., Norup, A., Beatty, E. L., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-021-00216-5 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
How Does Education Hone Reasoning Ability?
Bunge, S. A., & Leib, E. R. (2020) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721419898818 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“There has been a heated debate on and off for over a century regarding the extent to which learning transfers across contexts and tasks (e.g., Judd, 1908; Redick, 2019; Singley & Anderson, 1989; Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901).”
BackgroundSiciliano, R. E., Thigpen, J. C., Desjardins, L., Cook, J., Steele, E. H., Gruhn, M. A., Ichinose, M. C., Park, S., Esbenshade, A. J., Pastakia, D. J., et al. (2021) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2021.1875226 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Working memory training has received much attention in recent years, but often with limited success and methodological concerns (Redick, 2019), therefore, pursuing other avenues of intervention are also important and may be impactful for families.”
BackgroundApplication of Machine Learning Models for Tracking Participant Skills in Cognitive Training
Sandeep, S., Shelton, C. R., Pahor, A., Jaeggi, S. M., & Seitz, A. R. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01532 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…of improving cognitive capacity by leveraging the plasticity of the brain has gathered both significant interest and controversies regarding effectiveness (Karbach and Unger, 2014; Au et al., 2016; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Simons et al., 2016; Green et al., 2018; Soveri et al., 2018; Redick, 2019).”
BackgroundCerreta, A., Mruczek, R. E. B., & Berryhill, M. E. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.570030 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…modest results with little evidence of transfer to untrained tasks (for reviews see: Morrison and Chein, 2011; Shipstead et al., 2012; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Simons et al., 2016; Katz et al., 2018; Redick, 2019; Sala and Gobet, 2019; Teixeira-Santos et al., 2019; but see: Au et al., 2016a).”
ResultInvestigating the Role of Individual Differences in Adherence to Cognitive Training
Tullo, D., Feng, Y., Pahor, A., Cote, J. M., Seitz, A. R., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2023) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.315 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Transparency in Cognitive Training Meta-analyses: A Meta-review
Sandoval‐Lentisco, A., López‐Nicolás, R., Tortajada, M., López-López, J. A., & Sánchez‐Meca, J. (2024) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-024-09638-2 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Although working memory training is probably the most popular and polemical area (Aksayli et al., 2019; Hou et al., 2020; Nguyen et al., 2019; Redick, 2019; Teixeira-Santos et al., 2019), there are some other examples of cognitive training meta-analyses with conflicting results.”
Dekkers, T. J., & der Oord, S. V. (2022) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13751 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Peckham, A., Sandler, J. P., Dattolico, D., McHugh, R. K., Johnson, D. S., Björgvinsson, Þ., Pizzagalli, D. A., & Beard, C. (2021) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2021.103968 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“If tested in future studies, cognitive training interventions for impulsivity may benefit from adopting recent recommendations, including careful consideration of individual differences that may influence training outcomes (Redick, 2019; Smid, Karbach, & Steinbeis, 2020) and inclusion of strong control conditions (Red…”
MethodResultInfluentialAsymmetric negative transfer effects of working memory training
Ni, N., Gathercole, S. E., Norris, D. G., & Saito, S. (2023) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-023-01412-8 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Moreover, the WM training literature is often criticized for the lack of theory-based approaches explaining the mechanism underlying WM training and transfer (Redick, 2019; Smid et al., 2020).”
BackgroundCiobotaru, D., Jefferies, R., Lispi, L., & Derakshan, N. (2021) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2021.103926 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Does working memory training in children need to be adaptive? A randomized controlled trial
Lau, R. C., Anderson, P. J., Gathercole, S. E., Wiley, J. F., & Spencer‐Smith, M. M. (2024) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.14180 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Direct evidence that the adaptive method maximizes training outcomes is lacking (see Redick, 2019; von Bastian et al., 2022; von Bastian & Eschen, 2016).”
Lo, S. L., Gearhardt, A. N., Fredericks, E. M., Katz, B., Sturza, J. S., Kaciroti, N., Gonzalez, R., Hunter, C. M., Sonneville, K. R., Chaudhry, K., et al. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105157 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Runyan, A. C., Philippi, C. L., Pessin, S., Velez, C. S., Wade, B., Drennon, A. M., Cooper, D. B., Kennedy, J. E., Bowles, A. O., Lewis, J. D., et al. (2022) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2022.148099 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Izhak, S. B., & Michal Lavidor, B. (2023) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2023.2172413 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“The control group can be active or passive-waiting (Redick, 2019).”
BackgroundInterpreting experience and working memory effects on L1 and L2 morphological prediction
Lozano‐Argüelles, C., Sagarra, N., & Casillas, J. V. (2023) · Frontiers in Language Sciences · doi:10.3389/flang.2022.1065014 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“WM training, although controversial (Redick, 2019), has been recently proposed as a promising avenue to facilitate L2 acquisition (Tsai et al., 2016).”
BackgroundOkur, M., & Aksoy, V. (2025) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence13020016 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Additionally, Dehn (2008) advocates for early identification of cognitive deficits in SLD populations to optimize intervention outcomes, while Redick (2019) observed that WM training can transfer positively to related cognitive skills beyond the targeted tasks.”
Ramme, R. A., Neumann, D. L., & Donovan, C. L. (2022) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2022.101782 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Zuber, P., Geiter, E., de Quervain, D. J. ‐., & Magon, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.682474 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Peckham, A. (2021) · PubMed · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Unicorn, Hare, or Tortoise? Using Machine Learning to Predict Working Memory Training Performance
Feng, Y., Pahor, A., Seitz, A. R., Barbour, D. L., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2023) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.319 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Muhammadpour, M., Tahriri, A., Razmjoo, S. A., & Hassaskhah, J. (2025) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.70057 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Training-dependent transfer within a set of nested tasks
Rennie, J. P., Jones, J. S., & Astle, D. E. (2021) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021821993772 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“To explain the limited scope of transfer and better understand its boundary conditions, researchers have called for a more systematic approach to cognitive training research (Gathercole et al., 2019; Holmes et al., 2019; Katz et al., 2018; Norris et al., 2019; Redick, 2019; Sala & Gobet, 2019; Taatgen, 2013; Von Basti…”
BackgroundMethodScholl, F., Enge, S., & Gärtner, M. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11081083 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“However, are (commercial) brain training applications really effective, and crucially, is there a transfer from trained to untrained tasks? While training developers promise a significant increase in cognitive abilities, the empirical evidence of the effectiveness of cognitive brain training is still pending [4].”
BackgroundKarbach, J., & Strobach, T. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-04760-2_8 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Increasing the amplitude of intrinsic theta in the human brain
Voelker, P., Parker, A. N., Luu, P., Davey, C., Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (2020) · AIMS neuroscience · doi:10.3934/neuroscience.2020026 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“White matter change, as measured by Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) in adult humans, has been reported following the performance of cognitive tasks, particularly in studies of working memory and meditation [1], however the extent and generality of these finding remain controversial [2].”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Neural Mechanism Underlying Visual Working Memory Training and Its Limited Transfer Effect
Cai, Y., Yang, C., Wang, S., & Xue, G. (2022) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01897 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…does not transfer well to reasoning tests or decision-making tasks, which are closely related to WM and involve the pFC (Kassai et al., 2019; Redick, 2019; Soveri, Karlsson, Waris, GrönholmNyman, & Laine, 2017).1Zhejiang University, 2Beijing Normal University © 2022 Massachusetts Institute…”
BackgroundJiang, S., Jones, M., & von Bastian, C. C. (2023) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.306 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The working memory modifiability: Effects of mediation on working memory and analogical thinking
Tzuriel, D., Hanuka-Levy, D., & Weiss, T. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.106061 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Li, X., Han, T., Zhang, E., Shao, W., Li, L., & Wu, C. (2021) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-78111-8_6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Reduced connection strength leads to enhancement of working memory capacity in cognitive training
Lv, G., Xu, T., Li, J., Zhu, P., Chen, F., Yang, D., & Guo-guang, H. (2025) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2025.121055 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Training Working Memory for Two Years – No Evidence of Transfer to IntelligencePreprint
Watrin, L., Hülür, G., & Wilhelm, O. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hc8je · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Stringfield, S. J., Kirschmann, E. K., & Torregrossa, M. M. (2024) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyae048 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Rats were trained on a delayed-match-to-sample working memory task during daily 1-hour sessions (Kirschmann et al., 2017, 2019; Stringfield and Torregrossa, 2021).”
Advances in the management of ADHD in children and adolescents
Robaey, P., Rogers, M., & Schachar, R. J. (2026) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2024-082507 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“109 However, its limitations—ADHD cognitive heterogeneity, lack of robust far transfer, and high dependence on state and context 77 78 —challenge its clinical relevance.”
Crossing the Rubicon from the Social to the Biological Sciences
Warne, R. T. (2020) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.133.4.0536 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Training-dependent transfer within a set of nested tasksPreprint
Rennie, J. P., Jones, J. S., & Astle, D. E. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/n6htd · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Jiang, S., Jones, M., & von Bastian, C. C. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/xbkcz · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Zhang, W., Alekseevich, D. S., Fedorovich, M. V., Алексеевна, С. Т., & Elahi, E. (2024) · Applied Economics · doi:10.1080/00036846.2024.2364104 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“It also parallels general patterns of innovation diffusion, where initial enthusiasm often encounters scepticism and resistance from established interests, potentially leading to conflicts between new and old paradigms (Binz and Truffer 2017; Hahanov et al. 2018; Redick 2019).”
Updates on Working Memory Training in Deaf Children with Cochlear Implants
Kronenberger, W. G., & Pisoni, D. B. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-67188-3_23 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Is working memory training efficient? Effects on IQ and school performance in Brazilian children
Barbosa‐Pereira, D., Martins, P. S. R., Ferreira‐Junior, L. A., da Costa, M. F. A., Paixão, J. P. C., Costa, R. R., Saldanha‐Silva, R., & Mansur‐Alves, M. (2022) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3921 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108635462.024 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Working Memory Is as Working Memory Does: A Pluralist Take on the Center of the Mind
Gomez‐Lavin, J. (2024) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1696 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Neuropsykologisen kuntoutuksen vaikuttavuus lasten ja nuorten muistitoimintoihin
Kanerva, K., Laasonen, M. R., & vaikuttavuustyöryhmä, K. (2025) · Psykologia · doi:10.62443/psykologia.v56i2.97475 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…on interventiot, tarkastellaan tietyn kognitiivisen toiminnon kuten työmuistin tai prospektiivisen muistin harjoittamisen tai vahvistamisen vaiku-tuksia kyseiseen toimintoon sekä harjoituksen siirtovaikutuksia muihin kognitiivisiin toimin-toihin tai yleisemmin toimintakykyyn (Redick, 2019).”
Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategiesPreprint
Malinovitch, T., Jackoby, H., & Ahissar, M. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.05.24.113555 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ørskov, P. T., Norup, A., Beatty, E. L., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-021-00221-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Summary: Later Life and Interventions
DeCaro, R. E., & Thomas, A. K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108552684.045
Translating Research on the Neuroscience of Intelligence into Action
Barbey, A. K., Karama, S., & Haier, R. J. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108635462.023
Haier, R. J., Colom, R., & Hunt, E. B. (2023) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108569576.014
Casillas, R. Q., & López, S. H. (2024) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-024-00396-z
“Over 40 years of research have demonstrated that working memory is strongly and positively related to CSs in academic settings and workplaces (Redick, 2019).”
Stringfield, S. J., Kirschmann, E. K., & Torregrossa, M. M. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.05.28.596305
Brain Plasticity and Cognitive Enhancement
Posner, M. I., Rothbart, M. K., & Weible, A. P. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197677131.013.1
Caetano, T., Pinho, M. S., Freire, H., Mota, D., Ramadas, E., Lopes, J., Freire-Santos, F., & Dixe, M. D. A. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-00922-6
The Working Memory Modifiability: Effects of Mediation on Working Memory and Analogical ThinkingPreprint
Tzuriel, D., Hanuka-Levy, D., & Weiss, T. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5254501
The role of working memory for learning with context-personalized tasks in elementary school
Laufs, A.-K., Meyer, A., Krüger, M., & Kempert, S. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1671810 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“However, training studies aiming at the enhancement of working memory resources have shown no or only very limited effects (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Redick, 2019).”
Neuronaukowe podstawy inteligencji
Haier, R. J., Kabziński, P., & Mąka, S. (2026) · Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego eBooks · doi:10.18778/8331-892-9
Cognitive Strategy-based neuromodulation optimizes neural communication to improve working memory
Tian, Y., Tan, C., Jiang, Y., Li, P., & Ma, W. (2026) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2026.122104
Cummins, J. D., Meijer, Z., Cassidy, S., & Houwer, J. D. (2026) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2026.101032
- Authors
- Redick, T. S.
- Affiliations
- Purdue University West Lafayette (US)
- Corresponding author
- Redick, Thomas S.
- ORCID
- Redick, Thomas S.
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2019-05-16
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 423-429
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- PMC
- PMC6897530
- OpenAlex
- W2946205791
- Semantic Scholar
- a71534769dae3491cacbd40a4fd8a7db537736f0
- Cited by
- 69
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 15
- FWCI
- 11.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- national science foundation (1632403 and 1839971)
- national institutes of health (2R01AA013650-11A1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Keywords
- working memory training, transfer of training, computerized cognitive training, training effectiveness, cognitive enhancement, individual differences in training response
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