Short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training
Open accessAbstract
Does cognitive training work? There are numerous commercial training interventions claiming to improve general mental capacity; however, the scientific evidence for such claims is sparse. Nevertheless, there is accumulating evidence that certain cognitive interventions are effective. Here we provide evidence for the effectiveness of cognitive (often called "brain") training. However, we demonstrate that there are important individual differences that determine training and transfer. We trained elementary and middle school children by means of a videogame-like working memory task. We found that only children who considerably improved on the training task showed a performance increase on untrained fluid intelligence tasks. This improvement was larger than the improvement of a control group who trained on a knowledge-based task that did not engage working memory; further, this differential pattern remained intact even after a 3-mo hiatus from training. We conclude that cognitive training can be effective and long-lasting, but that there are limiting factors that must be considered to evaluate the effects of this training, one of which is individual differences in training performance. We propose that future research should not investigate whether cognitive training works, but rather should determine what training regimens and what training conditions result in the best transfer effects, investigate the underlying neural and cognitive mechanisms, and finally, investigate for whom cognitive training is most useful.
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Positive far-transfer effects from working memory training are unlikely to occur in specific subgroups, such as baseline underachievers.
“Moreover, it is unlikely that WM training exerts positive far-transfer effects on subgroups of individuals (e.g., underachievers at baseline assessment; Jaeggi et al., 2011).”
From Working memory training in typically developing children: A multilevel meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2011
The Results (page unavailable) report positive far transfer to fluid intelligence in the subgroup of children with large working-memory training gains, contrary to the claim that positive effects are unlikely in subgroups. The Discussion (page unavailable) finds no significant difference in transfer between children with high and low initial fluid-intelligence performance; it does not identify baseline underachievers as unlikely to benefit. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPrevious studies typically compared low versus high training gain subgroups, and this responder analysis can be problematic.
“Previous studies have examined the relationship between training gain and far transfer, typically by comparing subgroups of participants who show low versus high training gain31,38,39; however, this type of responder analysis can be problematic40.”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [31]
In Jaeggi et al. (2011), perceived difficulty of the training task negatively affected training-related gains.
“they found that the perceived difficulty of the training task negatively affected training-related gains”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2011
Jaeggi et al. (2011) found that, compared with a control group performing knowledge and vocabulary-based tasks, the working-memory training group showed significant improvement on the training tasks.
“Compared to a control group that performed knowledge and vocabulary-based tasks, the working-memory training group showed significant improvement on the training tasks”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2011
In Jaeggi et al. (2011), improvements on the training tasks were positively correlated with transfer gains in fluid intelligence.
“improvements on the training tasks were positively correlated with transfer gains in terms of fluid intelligence”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2011
In Jaeggi et al. (2011), only the group with large improvements on the training tasks showed significant transfer of working-memory training to measures of fluid intelligence (matrix reasoning).
“only the group with large improvements on the training tasks showed significant transfer of the working-memory training to measures of fluid intelligence (matrix reasoning).”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2011
Transfer of working-memory training seems to depend on the nature of the training, the transfer tasks, the control condition, baseline performance, and motivation of participants.
“It seems to depend on the nature of the training, the transfer tasks, and the control condition as well as the baseline performance and the motivation of the participants”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2011
Compared with Jaeggi et al.'s findings, the data suggest that visuo-spatial working-memory training might be more effective than verbal working-memory training in inducing transfer to other domains of EF and other cognitive abilities.
“Compared with Jaeggi et al.’s (2011) findings, this data suggests that visuo-spatial working-memory training might be more effective in order to induce transfer to other domains of EF and other cognitive abilities than verbal working-memory training.”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2011
Transfer of working memory training to fluid intelligence depends on a participant's individual improvement on the training task.
“The authors concluded that transfer of working memory training to fluid intelligence depends on participant’s individual improvement on the training task.”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2011
Adaptive task difficulties that are optimally challenging at all times are important.
“pointing to the importance of adaptive task difficulties that are optimally challenging at all times (Jaeggi et al., 2011).”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2011
Jaeggi et al. (2011) found no transfer from visuo-spatial n-back training to measures of fluid intelligence.
“but no transfer to measures of fluid intelligence.”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2011
In Jaeggi et al. (2011), the differences in transfer were found immediately after training and three months later.
“These differences were found immediately after training as well as three months later.”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2011
Cognitive training has often suffered from a lack of transferability; improvements at the training task do not generalize to the real world.
“Cognitive training has often suffered from a lack of transferability [57-59]. Although participants may improve at the training task, these improvements do not generalize to the real world.”
From Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy (2016) · cites this paper as [58]
Correlations between training improvement and transfer have been viewed by some as evidence that transfer is moderated by training gains.
“Correlations between the amount of training improvement and the amount of transfer observed have been viewed by some researchers as evidence that transfer is moderated by training gains (Jaeggi et al., 2011).”
From A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only (2016) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2011
Individuals' improvement during training has been shown to be a relevant predictor of transfer effects in young adults as well as in children and older adults.
“individuals’ improvement during training has been shown to be a relevant predictor of transfer effects in young adults (Jaeggi et al., 2011) as well as in children and older adults (Zinke et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2014).”
From Training on Working Memory and Inhibitory Control in Young Adults (2016) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2011
Large cross-participant variability has also been observed in previous no-instruction training studies.
“Large cross-participant variability was also observed in previous (no-instruction) training studies (e.g., Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Jonides, & Shah, 2011).”
From Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies (2021) · cites this paper as Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Jonides, & Shah, 2011
Other studies demonstrated improvement in near-transfer tasks although no improvement in far transfer.
“Other studies demonstrated improvement in near-transfer tasks although no improvement in far transfer [6,8,10,12,15].”
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [15]
Near and far transfer effects, albeit mixed, have been demonstrated after dual n-back training in younger (e.g., under 30) and older (e.g., over 60) age groups.
“Although near and far transfer effects, albeit mixed, have been demonstrated after dual n-back training in younger (e.g., under 30) and older (e.g., over 60) age groups [5–12,15,17,18] effects were not previously investigated in a middle age-range sample.”
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [15]
Effects of dual n-back training were not previously investigated in a middle age-range sample.
“Although near and far transfer effects, albeit mixed, have been demonstrated after dual n-back training in younger (e.g., under 30) and older (e.g., over 60) age groups [5–12,15,17,18] effects were not previously investigated in a middle age-range sample.”
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [15]
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“Thus, consistent with a prior meta-analysis (32), preexisting ability does not seem to be a primary explanation for transfer differences.”
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“well as other factors associated with the training programs such as motivation (Jaeggi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe effects of working memory resource depletion and training on sensorimotor adaptation
Anguera, J. A., Bernard, J. A., Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Benson, B. L., Jennett, S., Humfleet, J., Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., Jonides, J., & Seidler, R. D. (2012) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.11.040 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Self-citationInfluence of neuroticism and conscientiousness on working memory training outcome
Studer-Luethi, B., Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., & Perrig, W. J. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.02.012 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
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Neural effects of short-term training on working memory
Buschkuehl, M., Hernandez-Garcia, L., Jaeggi, S. M., Bernard, J. A., & Jonides, J. (2014) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-013-0244-9 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
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Development of Virtual Reality Serious Game for Underground Rock-Related Hazards Safety Training
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Self-citationTraining on Working Memory and Inhibitory Control in Young Adults
Maraver, M. J., Bajo, M. T., & Gomez-Ariza, C. J. (2016) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00588 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“Furthermore, individuals’ improvement during training has been shown to be a relevant predictor of transfer effects in young adults (Jaeggi et al., 2011) as well as in children and older adults (Zinke et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2014).”
BackgroundTraining working memory: Limits of transfer
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Individual differences and long-term consequences of tdcs-augmented cognitive training
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Spaced cognitive training promotes training transfer.
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“Other studies demonstrated improvement in near-transfer tasks although no improvement in far transfer [6,8,10,12,15].”
ResultThe Hype Cycle of Working Memory Training
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“Some studies have reported a positive relationship between training gain and transfer gain (e.g., Chein & Morrison, 2010; Jaeggi et al., 2011).”
Exploring <i>N</i> -Back Cognitive Training for Children With ADHD
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“Based on previous work with typically developing young adults and children, we tentatively predicted transfer of n-back training to our composite measure of matrix reasoning, especially for children who improved in the task (Jaeggi et al., 2011; Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Shah, & Jonides, 2014).”
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“Finally, given that earlier work with children has shown that training-related gains can persist for three months (Jaeggi et al., 2011; Klingberg, Forssberg, & Westerberg, 2002; Karbach, Strobach, & Schubert, 2015), we also tested for any longitudinal effects of training three months after the posttest.”
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Individual Differences and Motivational Effects
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Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies
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- Authors
- Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Shah, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2011-06-13
- Volume
- 108
- Issue
- 25
- Pages
- 10081-10086
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC3121868
- OpenAlex
- W1974081955
- Cited by
- 769
- References
- 12
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 45 · 2019: 55 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 61 · 2015: 62 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 68 · 2012: 47
- FWCI
- 76.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Institute of Education Sciences (R324A090164)
- Office of Naval Research
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- cognitive training, brain training, working memory, fluid intelligence, transfer of training, individual differences, children, long-term effects
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Child, Cognition, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Psychomotor Performance, Surveys and Questionnaires
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