The role of individual differences in cognitive training and transfer
Abstract
Working memory (WM) training has recently become a topic of intense interest and controversy. Although several recent studies have reported near- and far-transfer effects as a result of training WM-related skills, others have failed to show far transfer, suggesting that generalization effects are elusive. Also, many of the earlier intervention attempts have been criticized on methodological grounds. The present study resolves some of the methodological limitations of previous studies and also considers individual differences as potential explanations for the differing transfer effects across studies. We recruited intrinsically motivated participants and assessed their need for cognition (NFC; Cacioppo & Petty Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42:116-131, 1982) and their implicit theories of intelligence (Dweck, 1999) prior to training. We assessed the efficacy of two WM interventions by comparing participants' improvements on a battery of fluid intelligence tests against those of an active control group. We observed that transfer to a composite measure of fluid reasoning resulted from both WM interventions. In addition, we uncovered factors that contributed to training success, including motivation, need for cognition, preexisting ability, and implicit theories about intelligence.
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Six comparisons across four studies show control group decreases in reading comprehension from pretest to posttest.
“Of these, 6 comparisons across 4 studies (Jaeggi et al 2014; Lee, 2014; Redick & Wiemers, 2015; Shiran & Breznitz, 2011) show an odd pattern with the control group showing decreases in reading comprehension from pretest-posttest”
From Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer” (2016) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al 2014
There was no difference in effect size between dual and single n-back training.
“Additionally, we found no difference depending on whether studies used dual or single n-back, which corroborates previous findings (Jaeggi et al., 2014;Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
From Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis (2015) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2014
Previous studies comparing single and dual n-back training have shown both versions are equally effective in producing generalization and have fairly similar transfer effects.
“Previous studies comparing the effects of single and dual nback training have shown that both task versions seem to be equally effective in producing generalization and that the transfer effects are fairly similar”
From Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies (2017) · cites this paper as Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Shah, & Jonides, 2014
Inter-individual differences in responsiveness to WM training interventions exist.
“it is not surprising that inter-individual differences in responsiveness to WM training interventions exist82,83”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [83]
Serious games are characterized by high-intensity immediate reinforcement, which appears to improve task performance, especially within ADHD populations.
“These games are characterized by a high-intensity immediate reinforcement and this appears to improve task performance, especially within ADHD populations [39,40].”
Jaeggi et al. (2014) proposed that whether studies find transfer to fluid intelligence may depend on intrinsic motivation and that paying participants may undermine intrinsic motivation.
“Jaeggi et al. (2014) proposed that one explanation for why some studies find transfer to fluid intelligence and others do not may depend on how intrinsically motivated the participants are and that paying participants may undermine intrinsic motivation.”
From A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only (2016) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al. (2014)
Jaeggi et al. (2014) found volunteers self-reported more cognitive failures and described them as having a self-perceived deficit that may have influenced their interest in improving memory.
“Jaeggi et al. (2014) found that volunteers self-reported more cognitive failures and described these participants as having Bsome self-perceived deficit that many have influenced their interest in improving their memory and cognitive performance in the first place^ (Jaeggi et al., 2014).”
From A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only (2016) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al. (2014)
Personality differences have been raised as a factor affecting transfer of training.
“Personality differences have also been raised as a factor that affects transfer of training (Jaeggi et al., 2014).”
From A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only (2016) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2014
Other research groups have suggested that inhibition of irrelevant information in working memory may be the locus of n-back training.
“Other research groups have also suggested that the ability to inhibit irrelevant information in working memory may be the locus of n-back training (Jaeggi et al., 2014;Schwarb et al., 2015).”
From A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only (2016) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2014
Task reliability, especially test-retest reliability, is an important factor that may affect transfer.
“An important factor that might impact transfer is task reliability, especially test-retest reliability (Jaeggi et al. 2014).”
From Divergent Research Methods Limit Understanding of Working Memory Training (2020) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al. 2014
Most N-back training studies use adaptive training by adjusting difficulty based on individual performance, and adapting difficulty is engaging for participants.
“Most N-back training studies utilize adaptive training by adjusting the level of task difficulty based on individual performance, and it has been shown that adapting the difficulty level of the task is engaging for the participant (Jaeggi et al. 2014).”
From Divergent Research Methods Limit Understanding of Working Memory Training (2020) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al. 2014
Several studies have demonstrated positive effects of WM training in different age groups with transfer to trained and untrained domains such as mathematical performance.
“Several studies have demonstrated positive effects of WM training in different age groups (Borella et al., 2010; Söderqvist et al., 2012; Jaeggi et al., 2013) with transfer to trained and untrained domains such as mathematical performance”
From Training on Working Memory and Inhibitory Control in Young Adults (2016) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2013
Training procedures targeting specific cognitive abilities allow more restricted attributions on training-derived transfer effects than complex procedures that include multiple cognitive domains.
“training procedures targeting specific cognitive abilities (such as WM or IC) allow for more restricted attributions on training-derived transfer effects (Borella et al., 2010; Rueda et al., 2012; Jaeggi et al., 2013) than complex procedures that include multiple cognitive domains”
From Training on Working Memory and Inhibitory Control in Young Adults (2016) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2013
Previous studies reporting positive training effects have normally used single but highly demanding tasks, such as the dual n-back task, and/or participants attained high levels of performance over training, such as n-back levels of over 3.
“Previous studies reporting positive training effects have normally used single but highly demanding tasks, such as the dual n-back task (Jaeggi et al., 2008, 2010, 2013) and/or participants attained high levels of performance over training, such as n-back levels of over 3 (Jaeggi et al., 2008, 2013).”
From Training on Working Memory and Inhibitory Control in Young Adults (2016) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2013
Previous training studies have been criticized for the suitability of the control conditions, for not considering motivational factors, or for the use of single training tasks.
“Previous training studies have been criticized for the suitability of the control conditions, for not considering motivational factors, or for the use of single training tasks (Jaeggi et al., 2013; Redick et al., 2013; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
From Training on Working Memory and Inhibitory Control in Young Adults (2016) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2013
Motivation is related to greater improvements that could result in greater transfer effects.
“Thus, and consistent with previous studies, motivation this result highlights the importance of considering individual motivation through training, since it is related to greater improvements that could result in greater transfer effects (Mather and Carstensen, 2005; Jaeggi et al., 2013; Katz et al., 2014).”
From Training on Working Memory and Inhibitory Control in Young Adults (2016) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2013
To our knowledge, the only investigated factor impacting motivation is monetary compensation.
“To our knowledge, the only investigated factor impacting motivation is monetary compensation [14,16].”
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [16]
Jaeggi and colleagues conducted an Item Response Theory analysis of the RAPM and concluded that when split into parallel odd and even forms, one form is disproportionately more difficult than the other form, which can distort results by making it appear that one group performed better, or worse, than another group.
“For example, Jaeggi and colleagues [16] conducted an Item Response Theory analysis of the RAPM and concluded that when split into parallel odd and even forms, one form is disproportionately more difficult than the other form, which can distort results by making it appear that one group performed better, or worse, than another group.”
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [16]
Some findings suggest that paying participants to train decreases intrinsic motivation and results in lower effect sizes.
“Specifically, some findings suggest that paying participants to train decreases intrinsic motivation and results in lower effect sizes [14,16]; although lack of remuneration does not guarantee effects.”
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [16]
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- Authors
- Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Shah, P., & Jonides, J.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Irvine (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Jaeggi, Susanne M.
- Venue
- Memory & Cognition
- Published
- 2013-10-01
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 464-480
- ISSN
- 0090-502X (ISSN-L)
- 1532-5946
- OpenAlex
- W2077429714
- Cited by
- 432
- References
- 95
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 30 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 42 · 2016: 41 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 49.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Memory & Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- working memory training, cognitive training, transfer of training, individual differences, need for cognition, implicit theories of intelligence, fluid intelligence, fluid reasoning, motivation, training effectiveness
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Female, Humans, Individuality, Intelligence, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Middle Aged, Thinking, Transfer, Psychology, Young Adult
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