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Are Cultures Becoming Individualistic? A Cross-Temporal Comparison of Individualism–Collectivism in the United States and Japan

Hamamura, Takeshi·2012·Personality and Social Psychology Review

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Abstract

Individualism-collectivism is one of the best researched dimensions of culture in psychology. One frequently asked but underexamined question regards its cross-temporal changes: Are cultures becoming individualistic? One influential theory of cultural change, modernization theory, predicts the rise of individualism as a consequence of economic growth. Findings from past research are generally consistent with this theory, but there is also a body of evidence suggesting its limitations. To examine these issues, cross-temporal analyses of individualism-collectivism in the United States and Japan were conducted. Diverging patterns of cultural changes were found across indices: In both countries, some of the obtained indices showed rising individualism over the past several decades, supporting the modernization theory. However, other indices showed patterns that are best understood within the frameworks of a shifting focus of social relationships and a persisting cultural heritage. A comprehensive theory of cultural change requires considerations of these factors in addition to the modernization effect.

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“Factors such as rising educational attainment, shifts in gender role ideologies, and increased exposure to globalized media are fostering greater individual autonomy in partner selection (Hamamura, 2012; Lesthaeghe, 2010).”
The Dialectical Self Around the World: A Meta-Analysis of Country-Level Means.
Spencer-Rodgers, J., Major-Siciliano, I., Yan, W., Cortijo, A., McKenzie, L., & Peng, K. (2026) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672251398281
Understanding the Persistence of Traditional Values in Modern Society: Adaptive Utility Matters
He, M., Huajian, C. A. I., Xing, C., & Zhu, Y. (2025) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672251393559
Orthorexia nervosa and psychological distress among nursing, medical, and non-health-related students
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Social Participation as Doing and Belonging: A Qualitative Study of Individuals Living with Schizophrenia
Randolph, S. B., Ratner, A. M., Stout, M. E., Wasmuth, S., & Connor, L. T. (2025) · Occupational Therapy in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/0164212x.2025.2599942
Development and Validation of the Japanese Version of the Triarchic Model of Grit Scale
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Beyond Leadership Skills: The Conditional Impact of Self‐Directed Protean Career Orientation on Leader Identity Formation
Hayashi, S., & Saito, K. (2025) · International Journal of Training and Development · doi:10.1111/ijtd.70013
Newspaper article counts and their generation method are reliable: Recollecting data and analyzing temporal differences
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“These changes in the emphasis on uniqueness are consistent with previous research on names (e.g., Ogihara et al., 2015; Ogihara & Ito, 2022; for a review, see Ogihara, 2025c) and individualism (Hamamura, 2012; Ogihara, 2018; Taras et al., 2012; for a review, see Ogihara, 2017).”
Is Primacy of Primary Control Universal? Comparisons Between Ideal-Actual Levels of Control Strategies Among Youth and Emerging Adults Across Four Countries
Sawaumi, T., Kurman, J., Park, J., Robinson, A. R., Sagie, I., & Yamaguchi, S. (2024) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/00220221241302087
“First, individualistic practices were reported to have increased over the recent years not only in Western countries but also in Asian countries (Santos et al., 2017), including South Korea (Park et al., 2017) and Japan (Hamamura, 2012).”
Socioeconomic development and the evolution of workplace values in contemporary Poland
Woldu, H. G., Skuza, A., & Budhwar, P. (2024) · European Management Review · doi:10.1111/emre.12670
Gender and resources' role in parents' time with children in South Korea and the United States
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“Hamamura (2011) examines the variations in individuality and collectivism through time in the United States and Japan.”
Background
“Kids or demons?”: Personal referring expressions applied to juvenile offenders in English and Chinese crime news
Wang, X., & Yao, J. (2023) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2023.07.006
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“Although individualism had been prevalent as modernization progressed around the world, collectivistic values remained in Japan in some aspects of family and friendship (Hamamura, 2012).”
Background
Millennials ¿similares o diferentes? Inclinación al individualismo en una sociedad colectivista
Aguilar-Rodríguez, I. E., Artieda-Cajilema, C. H., & Aguinaga, A. A. (2022) · Estudios de la Gestión revista internacional de administración · doi:10.32719/25506641.2022.12.9
“También, aunque la igualdad de género se asocia con el individualismo, se comprueba que pueden existir diferencias en el comportamiento entre hombres y mujeres, de acuerdo con su edad y lugar de residencia, además, posiblemente esto se deba al incremento de migración rural-urbana, que ha hecho que se generen nuevos es…”
BackgroundInfluential
Self-assertive interdependence in Mongolian culture: evidence from cognitive anthropology
Li, X., Liu, Z., & Wu, Y. (2022) · Culture and Brain · doi:10.1007/s40167-022-00110-7 · Cited by 1
“The theory of historical and cultural heritage also holds that macroculture changes can be traced back to environmental changes in ecology (Hamamura, 2012; Uskul & Cross, 2018).”
Background
Adapting “Color Blindness” to South Korean Attitudes Toward Multicultural Minorities: Scale Development
Baek, K., Seo, Y., Kim, A., & Piao, J.-L. (2021) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000020980698
“These manifestations of attitudes toward multicultural minorities might be explained by South Korean values that are linked to a cultural system known as collectivism as well as their historical background (Hamamura, 2012).”
Background
Diversity of Cultures
Karandashev, V. N. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-58438-2_1 · Cited by 1
"I Hear You Just Fine": Disability and Queer Identity in Yuki Fumino's I Hear the Sunspot
Percy, C. (2020) · doi:10.21900/j.jams.v1.233
Charitable behavior in China under the Charity Law: Evaluation of charity advertisements involving in‐groups and out‐groups
Suzuki, S., Kohlbacher, F., & Akutsu, S. (2020) · doi:10.1002/nvsm.1696
Genetics of Personality
Sallis, H., Smith, G. D., & Munafo, M. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.024 · Cited by 1
The Trait Approach
Weiss, A., & Deary, I. (2020) · The Cambridge Handbook of Personality Psychology · doi:10.4135/9781446215159.n847
Social Relations and Social Support
Austin, E. Q., Knack, J. M., Jensen‐Campbell, L. A., & Rex‐Lear, M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.036
Models of Personality Structure
Raad, B. D., & Barelds, D. P. H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.012 · Cited by 4
Personality Assessment Methods
Boyle, G. J., & Helmes, E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.011 · Cited by 1
Personality and Intelligence
Schermer, J. A., & Saklofske, D. H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.014
Narrative Identity in the Social World
McLean, K. C., Syed, M., Haraldsson, K. G., & Lowe, L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.035 · Cited by 2
Personality in Nonhuman Animals
Bell, A. M., & Bensky, M. K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.023 · Cited by 1
General Introduction
Corr, P. J., & Matthews, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.002
Personality at Work
Salgado, J. F., Anderson, N. R., & Moscoso, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.040 · Cited by 4
Personality and Crime
Lynam, D. R., Vize, C. E., & Miller, J. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.043 · Cited by 2
Chinese and Canadian Identity on Responses to the Experience of Shame and Guilt
Su, C., & Hynie, M. (2020) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00350-9
“…Japan and South Korea tended not to support these differences (Furukawa et al. 2012) but some have argued that Japan is becomingmore individualist (Hamamura 2012; Ogihara et al. 2015) and somay not be a good test of how cultural differences in self-construal affect responses to self-conscious…”
Background
Consensus and Equilibria in the Presence of Self-Interest and Conformity in Social Groups
Brida, J., & Álvarez, E. (2017) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2976496
“This work then allows us to study the behavior of societies, in the sense of Bond and Smith (1996) and Hamamura (2012).”
Comprendre et traiter le narcissisme avec la psychothérapie EMDR
Mosquera, D., & Knipe, J. (2016) · Journal of EMDR Practice and Research · doi:10.1891/1933-3196.10.2.e29
“, 2012) qui est souvent entraîné par le développement économique (Hamamura, 2012).”
Background
The Influence of Organizational Collectivism and Individualism on Affective Commitment: Comparative Study of Korea and China
Han, S. J., Gao, A., & Kang, S. (2015) · Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial cooperation Society · doi:10.5762/kais.2015.16.9.5968
“이는 최근 연구되어지고 있는 집단주의와 개인주의의 밀접성, 상호 연관성의 연구들(Hamamura, 2012; Marcus & Le, 2013)과도 같은 맥락에서 이해될 수 있다.”
Cultural Factors and Popular Music on Spotify in Different Countries
Kok, K., North, A. C., & Hamamura, T. (2026) · Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1525/mp.2026.2682775
Self-citation
Rethinking innovation in light of women entrepreneurship
Orlando, B., & Schillaci, C. (2023) · Sinergie Italian Journal of Management · doi:10.7433/s121.2023.08
“…Well-being (SWB, popularly known as happiness) can be described as the individual experience of pleasant emotions (Diener, 1984, Kim et al. , 2005; Blanchflower and Graham, 2021; Oishi et al. , 2013; Burns and Crisp, 2022; Roberts and Helson, 1997; Twenge and Campbell, 2008; Hamamura, 2012).”
Creativity and Innovation: Chinese and German Conceptions and Approaches
Tang, M., & Hofreiter, S. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-34039-1_1 · Cited by 1
Cross-National Variation in the Predictors of Wellbeing: Life Domains and Positive Personality Traits
Fonberg, J., & Smith, A. P. (2021) · Sumerianz Journal of Social Science · doi:10.47752/sjss.42.65.72
“This is of particular relevance here, as modernization is associated with individualism (Hamamura, 2012; Rothwell and Hawdon, 2008).”
Background
Cultural Parameters and Their Influence on Emotions
Karandashev, V. N. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-58438-2_2 · Cited by 2

Authors: Hamamura, T.
Affiliations: Chinese University of Hong Kong (HK)
Corresponding author: Hamamura, Takeshi
ORCID: Hamamura, Takeshi
Venue: Personality and Social Psychology Review
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2011-06-23
Volume: 16
Issue: 1
Pages: 3-24
ISSN: 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
1532-7957
DOI: 10.1177/1088868311411587
OpenAlex: W2165944469
Cited by: 497
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 25 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 43 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 7
FWCI: 17.79
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
eSpace (Curtin University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Development › Culture, Economy, and Development Studies
Keywords: individualism-collectivism, cultural change, modernization theory, cross-temporal change, United States, Japan, interpersonal relationships, cultural heritage, economic growth, cultural values
MeSH terms: Cross-Cultural Comparison, Culture, Humans, Individuality, Japan, Social Behavior, Social Change, United States

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Are Cultures Becoming Individualistic? A Cross-Temporal Comparison of Individualism–Collectivism in the United States and Japan

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