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Cited by 1,216Cultural Differences and ValuesSocial and Intergroup PsychologyConsumer Behavior in Brand Consumption and Identification

Deviance or uniqueness, harmony or conformity: A cultural analysis

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Kim, Heejung, Markus, Hazel Rose·1999·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.77.4.785
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Abstract

Uniqueness has positive connotations of freedom and independence in American culture, whereas conformity has positive connotations of connectedness and harmony in East Asian culture. The present research examined how these cultural values and individual preferences for uniqueness and conformity influence each other. In Studies 1 and 2, East Asian and European American preferences for uniqueness were measured using abstract figures. In Study 3, the choice of pens by East Asians and European Americans was examined as a function of whether the pen appeared unique. In Study 4, Korean and American magazine ads were analyzed with a focus on themes of conformity and uniqueness. In all studies, East Asians preferred targets that represented conformity, whereas European Americans preferred targets that represented uniqueness. The results highlight the relationship between individual preference and the adoption and perpetuation of cultural values. If a person orders a decaffeinated cappuccino with nonfat milk in a cafe in San Francisco, he or she can feel good about having a preference that is not exactly regular. That person can feel right about being able to get the drink exactly the way he or she wants it and will be vindicated as the waiter brings the precise drink ordered without comment or question. In the United States, drinking a decaffeinated cappuccino with nonfat milk feels as good as drinking a regular cup of coffee, perhaps even better. The best taste is one's individualized taste, and being sure of one's own particular taste contributes to being an appropriate person in this cultural context. If a person orders the same drink—a decaffeinated cappuccino with nonfat milk—in a caf6 in Seoul, however, he or she may feel strange about being the only person who is getting this specialized beverage. That person will face others who are likely to be forming the impression that he or she is a person who does not get along with the group very well, and, moreover, that person will have to confront a waiter who may be annoyed at the request. Eventually, the person may even be humbled by the verdict that the cafe cannot make this idiosyncratic drink just for her. In this Korean cultural context, it does not feel right or good to drink a cup of decaffeinated cappuccino with nonfat milk. In Korea, the normal, regular, and traditional are usually the best tastes for the individual, and a

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  • The need for variety and uniqueness is weaker in East Asian cultures compared with Western cultures.

    “Similarly, the need for variety and uniqueness is weaker in East Asian cultures compared with Western cultures (Kim & Drolet, 2003; Kim & Markus, 1999).”

    From Creativity: The Influence of Cultural, Social, and Work Contexts (2010) · cites this paper as Kim & Markus, 1999

    The paper reports that East Asians preferred conforming targets while European Americans preferred unique targets (opening summary, p. 2), and its Study 3 discussion describes the same contrast in pen choices (p. 9). This supports the comparison about uniqueness, but the paper does not establish a weaker general need for variety. (LLM, conf=0.85)

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  • Cultures that emphasize individualism, low power distance, and low uncertainty avoidance create a cultural environment that supports expression of unique ideas and exploration of new ways of doing things.

    “In contrast, cultures that emphasize the values of individualism, low power distance, and low uncertainty avoidance create a cultural environment that supports the expression of one's unique ideas and the exploration of new ways of doing things (Brewer & Chen, 2007; Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Kim & Markus, 1999).”

    From Creativity: The Influence of Cultural, Social, and Work Contexts (2010) · cites this paper as Kim & Markus, 1999

    The discussion of American individualism (p. 3) links it to self-expression and valuing uniqueness, and the Conclusion (p. 15) reports that Americans preferred uniqueness. The paper does not address low power distance or low uncertainty avoidance, and the passages do not establish that these values encourage exploration of new ways of doing things. (LLM, conf=0.86)

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  • Collectivist values associated with conformity may explain why Thai students tried to fit in and did not want to be the center of attention when visible.

    “Collectivist values have been associated with conformity (Kim & Markus, 1999), which may explain why Thai students tried to fit in and did not want to be the center of attention, being so visible.”

    From Collaborative Online Learning across Cultures: the Role of Teaching and Social Presence (2022) · cites this paper as Kim & Markus, 1999

  • In individualist cultures, the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures, the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.

    “In individualist cultures (such as the US), the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures (such as in East Asia), the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.”

    From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Kim & Markus, 1999

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Cites

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3 of the 88 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 7

  1. Caillat, Z., & Mueller, B. (1996). The influence of culture on American and British advertising: An exploratory comparison of beer advertising. Journal of Advertising Research, 36, 79–88.
  2. Langfeldt, H. (1992). Teachers' perceptions of problem behavior: A crosscultural study between Germany and South Korea. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 62, 217–224.
  3. Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991a). Cultural variation in the selfconcept. In G. R. Goethals & J. Strauss (Eds.), Multidisciplinary perspectives on the self (pp. 18–48). New York: Springer-Verlag.
  4. Moscovici, S. (1984). The phenomena of social representations. In R. M. Farr & S. Moscovici (Eds.), Social representation (pp. 3-69). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
  5. Rohlen, T. P. (1991, June). A developmental topography of self and society in Japan. Paper presented at the Conference on Self and Society in India, China, and Japan, Honolulu, HI.
  6. Taylor, C. (1989). Source of the self: The making of modern identities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  7. Zimbardo, P. G. (1969). The human choice: Individuation, reason, and order versus deindividuation, impulse, and chaos. In W. J. Arnold & D. Levine (Eds.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 17 (pp. 237– 307). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

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Authors
Kim, H., & Markus, H. R.
Affiliations
Stanford University (US)
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
1999-10
Volume
77
Issue
4
Pages
785-800
ISSN
  • 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1315
DOI
10.1037/0022-3514.77.4.785
OpenAlex
W2144372049
Cited by
1,216
References
88
Citations by year
2026: 30 · 2025: 65 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 43 · 2022: 67 · 2021: 53 · 2020: 115 · 2019: 58 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 65 · 2016: 54 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 62 · 2013: 59 · 2012: 57
FWCI
16.26
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by-nc-sa
Locations
  • Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Marketing › Consumer Behavior in Brand Consumption and Identification
Keywords
uniqueness, conformity, cultural values, East Asian culture, individual preferences, magazine advertising, consumer choice, Korean culture, American culture, individualism-collectivism

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