Digital harassment and abuse: Experiences of sexuality and gender minority adults
Open accessAbstract
Digital harassment and abuse refers to a range of harmful, interpersonal behaviours experienced via the internet, as well as via mobile phone and other electronic communication devices. Whereas much existing research has focused on the experiences of children and young people (including foremost ‘cyberbullying’), there have been few international studies on adult experiences of digital harassment and abuse. As such, little is currently known about the extent, nature and impacts of digital harassment and abuse on adult victims. In particular, there exists a significant gap in current research into sexual, sexuality and gender based digital harassment and abuse. This article draws on findings from a larger research project in which we surveyed 2956 Australian adults and 2842 British adults (aged 18 to 54) about their experiences of technology-facilitated sexual violence (TFSV). The data presented here focus on the experiences of sexuality diverse adults ( n = 282) who identified as lesbian, gay, bisexual or heterosexual, as well as gender diverse adults ( n = 90), including women, men and transgender individuals. Results suggest that transgender individuals experience higher rates of digital harassment and abuse overall, and higher rates of sexual, sexuality and gender based harassment and abuse, as compared with heterosexual cisgender individuals. Implications of the findings are discussed with respect to policy, prevention, and future research.
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Many TGD individuals have experienced cyberbullying due to a lack of societal acceptance of their gender minority status.
“many TGD individuals have experienced cyberbullying due to a lack of societal acceptance of their gender minority status [2,3].”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
The Gender diverse adults and Table 5 passages report high rates of digital harassment among transgender participants, including offensive messages about their gender (60.0%). The paper does not establish that a lack of societal acceptance caused those experiences, and its findings concern transgender adults rather than all TGD individuals. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe vast majority of current research into cyberbullying is limited to predominantly adolescent populations.
“the vast majority of current research into cyberbullying is limited to predominantly adolescent populations [2,3]”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
The Introduction says much existing research focuses on cyberbullying experienced by children and young people, and the passage near Table 1 describes an overwhelming interest in youth experiences. It does not establish that the vast majority of research is limited to predominantly adolescent populations; it also notes studies of adults. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCyberbullying arising from gender-based discrimination is an external stressor, leading to vigilance and self-protective behavior, such as avoiding social media, and ultimately the potential internalization of these stressors as internalized transphobia and negative self-perception.
“Specifically, cyberbullying arising from gender-based discrimination is an external stressor, leading to vigilance and self-protective behavior, such as avoiding social media, and ultimately the potential internalization of these stressors as internalized transphobia and negative self-perception [2,30].”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThis also seemed to be internalized as negative emotions and self-perception in this sample, with frequent reports of avoidance of social media in response to cyberbullying and the internalization of shame and self-hatred expressed in several responses.
“This also seemed to be internalized as negative emotions and self-perception in this sample, with frequent reports of avoidance of social media in response to cyberbullying and the internalization of shame and self-hatred expressed in several responses [2,30].”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
The Discussion and implications section (page unavailable) says digital harassment is likely to exacerbate emotional distress, supporting the general link to negative emotions. Our copy does not report frequent social-media avoidance or respondents expressing internalized shame or self-hatred; searches for those terms found no such findings. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredTransgender and gender diverse (TGD) individuals are significantly more likely to experience cyberbullying.
“Transgender and gender diverse (TGD) individuals are significantly more likely to experience cyberbullying.”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
The Discussion and implications reports that transgender adults had significantly higher victimisation than cisgender heterosexual participants for 8 of 26 digital harassment and abuse behaviours. This supports elevated risk for the transgender participants, but does not establish a significant difference in cyberbullying overall or for all transgender and gender diverse individuals. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
TGD cyberbullying victimization was primarily identity-focused, including gender identity and other intersectional minority identities such as sexuality, consistent with Powell et al.
“Consistent with Powell et al. [2], TGD cyberbullying victimization was primarily identity-focused, including gender identity and other intersectional minority identities such as sexuality.”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
The gender/sexuality-based harassment results report that transgender participants experienced offensive messages about both their gender (60.0%) and sexuality (63.3%). But the Gender diverse adults and Discussion and implications sections describe elevated victimization across many kinds of digital abuse; they do not establish that victimization was primarily identity-focused. The paper also cautions that some abuse may not explicitly target gender or sexual identity. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredTGD individuals are often included under a broad category of LGBTQIA+ in cyberbullying research.
“TGD individuals are often included under a broad category of LGBTQIA+, and the vast majority of current research into cyberbullying is limited to predominantly adolescent populations [2,3]”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
Little is presently known about the lived cyberbullying experiences of TGD adults.
“However, little is presently known about the lived cyberbullying experiences of TGD adults despite the prevalence of cyberbullying experienced by the TGD community.”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
Participants commonly reported experiences of technology-facilitated violence featuring explicit sexual content or threats of sexual harm, consistent with previous findings that TGD individuals have a higher lifetime prevalence of online sexual harassment than their cisgender peers.
“Consistent with previous findings that TGD individuals have a higher lifetime prevalence of online sexual harassment than their cisgender peers [2], participants commonly reported experiences of technology-facilitated violence featuring explicit sexual content or threats of sexual harm.”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
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- Authors
- Powell, A., Scott, A. J., & Henry, N.
- Affiliations
- RMIT University (AU)
- Edith Cowan University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Powell, Anastasia
- Venue
- European Journal of Criminology
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2018-07-30
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 199-223
- ISSN
- 1477-3708 (ISSN-L)
- 1741-2609
- OpenAlex
- W2885907435
- Cited by
- 217
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 40 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 5
- FWCI
- 17.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- ro.ecu.edu.au
- Locations
- European Journal of Criminology (publishedVersion)
- Goldsmiths (University of London) (acceptedVersion)
- Australasian Journal of Paramedicine (submittedVersion)
- RMIT Research Repository (RMIT University Library) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Australian Research Council (DP130103094)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Stalking, Cyberstalking, and Harassment
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › LGBTQ Health, Identity, and Policy
- Keywords
- online harassment, online abuse, technology-facilitated sexual violence, gender-diverse adults, transgender people, cyberbullying, adult victims
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