Microalgal biorefineries: a systematic review of technological trade-offs and innovation pathways

Geng, Yucong; Shaukat, Alishba; Azhar, Wania; Raza, Qurat-Ul-Ain; Tahir, Ayesha; Abideen, Muhammad Zain ul; Zia, Muhammad Abu Bakar; Bashir, Muhammad Amjad; Rehim, Abdur

doi:10.1186/s13068-025-02694-7

Cited by 97Algal biology and biofuel productionMicrobial Metabolic Engineering and BioproductionBioeconomy and Sustainability Development

Microalgal biorefineries: a systematic review of technological trade-offs and innovation pathways

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Geng, Yucong, Shaukat, Alishba, Azhar, Wania, Raza, Qurat-Ul-Ain, Tahir, Ayesha, Abideen, Muhammad Zain ul, Zia, Muhammad Abu Bakar, Bashir, Muhammad Amjad +1 more·2025·Biotechnology for Biofuels and Bioproducts

DOI 10.1186/s13068-025-02694-7PMC PMC12357411

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Abstract

This review critically examines the entire value chain of microalgal biorefineries, with the central aim of elucidating the key technological, economic, and environmental enablers and barriers that govern their transition from pilot-scale demonstrations to commercially viable, circular-economy applications. A systematic literature search was conducted across five major scientific databases using predefined Boolean strings: "algal biorefineries," "microalgae biofuel," "techno-economic analysis," "life-cycle assessment," and "bioproduct recovery." Inclusion criteria encompassed peer-reviewed studies and authoritative policy documents published between January 2007 and March 2025 that provided empirical data on upstream cultivation, midstream processing, and downstream conversion, as well as techno-economic assessments (TEA) and life-cycle analyses (LCA). Exclusion criteria included non-English commentaries, purely theoretical models without experimental validation, and studies that focused exclusively on single-product streams. Unlike previous reviews that address isolated segments of the algal biorefinery pipeline, this work delivers a novel, integrative framework that synthesizes recent advances across cultivation modes, genetic and metabolic engineering, AI-enabled optimization, and IoT-driven monitoring. This review critically evaluates the trade-offs between CAPEX and OPEX, energy penalties associated with harvesting and drying, and inconsistencies in LCA to identify, where performance improvements yield the most significant economic and environmental returns. Finally, this review proposes a targeted research roadmap, spanning multivariate strain engineering, hybrid cultivation architectures, low-energy harvesting technologies, cascade-compatible fractionation platforms, standardized LCA/TEA protocols, and supportive policy mechanisms, that charts a clear path toward overcoming current bottlenecks. This comprehensive, evidence-based synthesis aims to inform both academic research and industrial strategy, thereby advancing the field of sustainable algal biorefineries.

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Harvesting alone can account for 20%-30% of overall costs.
“In particular, harvesting alone can account for 20%–30% of overall costs, while the combined costs of harvesting and extraction often exceed 50%–70% of OPEX, depending on the species cultivated and the technological route adopted (Tan et al., 2020; Geng et al., 2025).”
From Microalgae biotechnology and its role in sustainable and healthy food design (2025) · cites this paper as Geng et al., 2025
The “Midstream challenges: harvesting and dewatering” section says harvesting accounts for up to 25–30% of total process energy consumption and contributes to operating costs. It does not say harvesting accounts for 20–30% of overall costs; the claim applies an energy percentage to a different measure. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The combined costs of harvesting and extraction often exceed 50%-70% of OPEX, depending on the species cultivated and the technological route adopted.
“In particular, harvesting alone can account for 20%–30% of overall costs, while the combined costs of harvesting and extraction often exceed 50%–70% of OPEX, depending on the species cultivated and the technological route adopted (Tan et al., 2020; Geng et al., 2025).”
From Microalgae biotechnology and its role in sustainable and healthy food design (2025) · cites this paper as Geng et al., 2025
The Midstream challenges section says harvesting uses up to 25–30% of total process energy, not 20–30% of overall costs. The Downstream challenges section says extraction and fractionation increase OPEX, but neither section gives a combined harvesting-and-extraction share of 50–70% of OPEX. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
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Authors: Geng, Y., Shaukat, A., Azhar, W., Raza, Q.-U.-A., Tahir, A., Abideen, M. Z. U., Zia, M. A. B., Bashir, M. A., & Rehim, A.
Affiliations: Chengdu Normal University (CN)
University of Sargodha (PK)
Emerson University, Multan (PK)
University of the Punjab (PK)
Bahauddin Zakariya University (PK)
Corresponding author: Bashir, Muhammad Amjad
Rehim, Abdur
ORCID: Zia, Muhammad Abu Bakar
Bashir, Muhammad Amjad
Venue: Biotechnology for Biofuels and Bioproducts
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2025-08-15
Volume: 18
Issue: 1
Pages: 93-93
ISSN: 2731-3654 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1186/s13068-025-02694-7
PMC: PMC12357411
OpenAlex: W4413257253
Cited by: 96
References: 146
Citations by year: 2026: 84 · 2025: 12
FWCI: 4.42
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by-nc-nd
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 (tdm)
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 (vor)
Locations: Biotechnology for Biofuels and Bioproducts (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders: Ministry of Education, China (S202514389095; 202514389038)
Chengdu Normal University (2024XJCXXSY3)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › Algal biology and biofuel production
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Microbial Metabolic Engineering and Bioproduction
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › General Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Bioeconomy and Sustainability Development
Keywords: microalgae biorefinery, microalgal biofuels, techno-economic analysis, life cycle assessment, algae cultivation, bioproduct recovery, circular economy, innovation pathways, research roadmap

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Microalgal biorefineries: a systematic review of technological trade-offs and innovation pathways

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