Mechanism and challenges in commercialisation of algal biofuels
Abstract
Biofuels made from algal biomass are being considered as the most suitable alternative energy in current global and economical scenario. Microalgae are known to produce and accumulate lipids within their cell mass which is similar to those found in many vegetable oils. The efficient lipid producer algae cell mass has been reported to contain more than 30% of their cell weight as lipids. According to US DOE microalgae have the potential to produce 100 times more oil per acre land than any terrestrial plants. This article reviews up to date literature on the composition of algae, mechanism of oil droplets, triacylglycerol (TAG) production in algal biomass, research and development made in the cultivation of algal biomass, harvesting strategies, and recovery of lipids from algal mass. The economical challenges in the production of biofuels from algal biomass have been discussed in view of the future prospects in the commercialisation of algal fuels.
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Prajapati, S. K., Malik, A., & Vijay, V. K. (2013) · Applied Energy · doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.08.021 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Alhattab, M. (2015) · Journal of Fundamentals of Renewable Energy and Applications · doi:10.4172/2090-4541.1000154 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
“Compared to sedimentation, flotation method is much faster and more effective for harvesting of microalgae [96].”
BackgroundExploiting mixotrophy for improving productivities of biomass and co-products of microalgae
Pang, N., Gu, X., Chen, S., Kirchhoff, H., Lei, H., & Roje, S. (2019) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2019.06.001 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Garay, L. A., Boundy‐Mills, K., & German, J. B. (2014) · Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · doi:10.1021/jf4042134 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Lee, O. K., Kim, A. L., Seong, D. H., Lee, C., Jung, Y. T., Lee, J. W., & Lee, E. Y. (2013) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2013.01.007 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Conversion of green algal biomass into bioenergy by pyrolysis. A review
Aravind, S., Kumar, P. S., Kumar, N. S., & Siddarth, N. (2020) · Environmental Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1007/s10311-020-00990-2 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
A comprehensive review on microalgal harvesting strategies: Current status and future prospects
Roy, M., & Mohanty, K. (2019) · Algal Research · doi:10.1016/j.algal.2019.101683 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Mechanical cell disruption for lipid extraction from microalgal biomass
Halim, R., Rupasinghe, T., Tull, D., & Webley, P. A. (2013) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2013.04.067 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
“Therefore, large-scale cultivation of microalgae for biodiesel production should not place any additional strain on scarce agricultural resources, such as freshwater and arable land (Chisti, 2007; Sheehan et al., 1998; Shenk et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2011; Wijffels and Barbosa, 2010).”
BackgroundBhatt, P., Bhandari, G., Turco, R. F., Aminikhoei, Z., Bhatt, K., & Simsek, H. (2022) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119688 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Algal Green Energy – R&D and technological perspectives for biodiesel production
Rastogi, R. P., Pandey, A., Larroche, C., & Madamwar, D. (2017) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.038 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Algae as a sustainable energy source for biofuel production in Iran: A case study
Najafi, G., Ghobadian, B., & Yusaf, T. F. (2011) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.010 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Composition of Algal Oil and Its Potential as Biofuel
Schlagermann, P., Göttlicher, G., Dillschneider, R., Sastre, R. R., & Posten, C. H. (2012) · Journal of Combustion · doi:10.1155/2012/285185 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
“Soap formation also occurs in consequence of a high content of free fatty acids found in some algae and is to be prevented because saponification impairs the subsequent separation process and leads to partial consumption of the catalyst [28, 57, 58].”
BackgroundSustainable production of bioethanol from renewable brown algae biomass
Lee, O. K., & Lee, E. Y. (2016) · Biomass and Bioenergy · doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2016.03.038 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
A review on the recent application of dimethyl carbonate in sustainable biodiesel production
Esan, A. O., Adeyemi, A. D., & Ganesan, S. (2020) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120561 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Bhatt, A., Khanchandani, M., Rana, M. S., & Prajapati, S. K. (2022) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133456 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
A viable technology to generate third‐generation biofuel
Singh, A., Olsen, S. I., & Nigam, P. S. N. (2011) · Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology · doi:10.1002/jctb.2666 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Photobioreactor cultivation strategies for microalgae and cyanobacteria
Johnson, T. J., Katuwal, S., Anderson, G. A., Gu, L., Zhou, R., & Gibbons, W. R. (2018) · Biotechnology Progress · doi:10.1002/btpr.2628 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Enhancing biomass energy yield from pilot-scale high rate algal ponds with recycling
Park, J. B. K., Craggs, R. J., & Shilton, A. N. (2013) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2013.04.001 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
The microalga Parachlorella kessleri––A novel highly efficient lipid producer
Li, X., Přibyl, P., Bišová, K., Kawano, S., Cepák, V., Zachleder, V., Čížková, M., Brányiková, I., & Vítová, M. (2012) · Biotechnology and Bioengineering · doi:10.1002/bit.24595 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“…an alternative to conventional fossil fuels, due to the high productivity of algal biomass (Chisti, 2007; Doucha and Lı́vanský, 2009; Rodolfi et al., 2009; Singh et al., 2011b) and the ability of algae to recycle CO2 originating from flue gas (Benemann, 1997; Brown, 1996; Douskova et al., 2009).”
BackgroundA novel photobioreactor generating the light/dark cycle to improve microalgae cultivation
Liao, Q., Li, L., Chen, R., & Zhu, X. (2014) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2014.02.119 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Wastewater and waste CO2 for sustainable biofuels from microalgae
Collotta, M., Champagne, P., Mabee, W. E., & Tomasoni, G. (2017) · Algal Research · doi:10.1016/j.algal.2017.11.013 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Identification of the major functional proteins of prokaryotic lipid droplets
Ding, Y., Li, Y., Zhang, S., Wang, Y., Du, Y., Pu, J., Gong, P., Chen, Y., Zhang, H., Yu, J., et al. (2011) · Journal of Lipid Research · doi:10.1194/jlr.m021899 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Biodiesel production from microalgae by direct transesterification using green solvents
de Jesus, S. S., Ferreira, G. F., Moreira, L. S., & Filho, R. M. (2020) · Renewable Energy · doi:10.1016/j.renene.2020.07.056 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Monari, C., Righi, S., & Olsen, S. I. (2015) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.08.112 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“73 Due to several features, algae are regarded as a promising source of biofuels and are 74 considered an interesting alternative to current biofuel crops (Singh et al., 2011; Aitken 75 et al., 2014).”
BackgroundDisruptive innovations: The case for hydrogen fuel cells and battery electric vehicles
Hardman, S., Steinberger‐Wilckens, R., & van der Horst, D. (2013) · International Journal of Hydrogen Energy · doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.09.088 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Photosynthesis at the forefront of a sustainable life
Janssen, P., Lambreva, M. D., Plumeré, N., Bartolucci, C., Antonacci, A., Buonasera, K., Frese, R. N., Scognamiglio, V., & Rea, G. (2014) · Frontiers in Chemistry · doi:10.3389/fchem.2014.00036 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“A few cyanobacteria (Anabaena torulosa, 5 kGy, (Singh et al., 2010); Croococcidiopsis sp. 029, 15 kGy, (Billi et al., 2000) and algae [Coccomyxa actinabiotis, 20 kGy, (Rivasseau et al., 2013)] have been reported as being highly resistant against radiation although the underlying mechanisms have not…”
BackgroundBhatia, L., Bachheti, R. K., Garlapati, V. K., & Chandel, A. K. (2020) · Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery · doi:10.1007/s13399-020-00843-6 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Yun, H.-S., Kim, Y.-S., & Yoon, H. (2021) · Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology · doi:10.3389/fbioe.2021.774143 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
“The biomass productivity of microalgae using photosynthesis is higher compared to terrestrial plants producing useful materials such as fatty acids and pigments (Brennan and Owende, 2010; Singh et al., 2011; Ma et al., 2020; Yaakob et al., 2021).”
BackgroundThe potential of algae blooms to produce renewable gaseous fuel
Allen, E., Browne, J., Hynes, S., & Murphy, J. D. (2013) · Waste Management · doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2013.06.017 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“However over the last 15 years research is dominated by micro-algae biodiesel (Singh et al., 2011) whilst research on digestion of digestion of micro-algae is very limited partly due to the poor returns in biomethane production (Mata et al., 2009).”
BackgroundJoyia, M. A. K., Ahmad, M., Chen, Y.-F., Mustaqeem, M., Ali, A., Abbas, A., & Gondal, M. A. (2024) · Energy Conversion and Management · doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2024.119037 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Crossflow microfiltration of microalgae biomass for biofuel production
Ahmad, A. L., Yasin, N. H. M., Derek, C. J. C., & Lim, J. (2012) · Desalination · doi:10.1016/j.desal.2012.06.026 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Kim, S.-S., Ly, H. V., Kim, J., Lee, E. Y., & Woo, H. C. (2014) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2014.11.045 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Uduman, N., Bourniquel, V., Danquah, M. K., & Hoadley, A. (2011) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2011.09.012 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Kurosawa, K., Wewetzer, S., & Sinskey, A. J. (2013) · Biotechnology for Biofuels · doi:10.1186/1754-6834-6-134 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“In addition, although algae have been considered as an attractive biocatalyst for lipid-based fuels owing to their ability to produce substantial amounts of TAGs [16,17], it is currently estimated that large-scale production of biofuels from algae is unsustainable using existing technologies [18,19].”
Recycling and reuse of spent microalgal biomass for sustainable biofuels
Rashid, N., Rehman, M. S. U., & Han, J.-I. (2013) · Biochemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.bej.2013.04.001 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Saratale, R. G., Ponnusamy, V. K., Banu, J. R., Sirohi, R., Piechota, G., Shobana, S., Dharmaraja, J., Lay, C., Saratale, G. D., Shin, H. S., et al. (2022) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2022.127691 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Assessment of Environmental Stresses for Enhanced Microalgal Biofuel Production – An Overview
Cheng, D., & He, Q. (2014) · Frontiers in Energy Research · doi:10.3389/fenrg.2014.00026 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Zhang, X., Rong, J., Chen, H., He, C., & Wang, Q. (2014) · Frontiers in Energy Research · doi:10.3389/fenrg.2014.00032 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“The main advantages and limitation of open ponds and PBRs are summarized in Table 3 (Singh et al., 2011b; Pires et al., 2012; Arbib et al., 2013).”
BackgroundThe Enzymatic Conversion of Major Algal and Cyanobacterial Carbohydrates to Bioethanol
Al Abdallah, Q., Nixon, B. T., & Fortwendel, J. R. (2016) · Frontiers in Energy Research · doi:10.3389/fenrg.2016.00036 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“Furthermore, microalgae accumulate large amounts of polysaccharides and triacylglycerols – storage lipids and energy sources, and thereby they are suitable for simultaneous production of bioethanol and biodiesel (Mata et al., 2010; Singh et al., 2011; Suutari et al., 2015).”
BackgroundA critical review on different harvesting techniques for algal based biodiesel production
Ananthi, V., Balaji, P., Sindhu, R., Kim, S., Pugazhendhi, A., & Arun, A. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146467 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Kim, H. T., Chung, J. H., Wang, D., Lee, J., Woo, H. C., Choi, I., & Kim, K. H. (2012) · Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology · doi:10.1007/s00253-012-3882-x · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“Although marine biomass is thought to be the most abundant and sustainable resource for fermentative biofuel production (Jensen 1993; John et al. 2011; Singh et al. 2011), fermentable sugar availability or yield from marine biomass, such as macroalgae, remains a challenge due to the unique carbohydrate composition of…”
An overview: Recycling of solid barley waste generated as a by-product in distillery and brewery
Nigam, P. S. N. (2017) · Waste Management · doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2017.02.018 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“Hence, there is a need to promote a faster deployment of sustainable second generation bioethanol that will not compete with human food produc- tion (Singh et al., 2011a–c).”
BackgroundUsing macroalgae as biofuel: Current opportunities and challenges
Gao, G., Burgess, J. G., Wu, M., Wang, S., & Gao, K. (2020) · Botanica Marina · doi:10.1515/bot-2019-0065 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Yan, C., & Zheng, Z. (2013) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2013.04.054 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Kondaveeti, S., Abu-Reesh, I. M., Mohanakrishna, G., Bulut, M., & Pant, D. (2020) · Frontiers in Energy Research · doi:10.3389/fenrg.2020.00094 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“For instance, S. maxima has about 60∼70% w/w proteins, Porphyidium cruentum generates around 57% proteins, and Scenedesmus dimorphus generates up to 40% w/w of lipids (Nigam and Singh, 2011; Venkata Mohan et al., 2011) (Table 4).”
BackgroundSilva, A. D. S. E., de Magalhães, W. T., Moreira, L. M., Rocha, M. V. P., & Bastos, A. K. P. (2018) · Algal Research · doi:10.1016/j.algal.2018.08.015 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Microalgal biorefineries: a systematic review of technological trade-offs and innovation pathways
Geng, Y., Shaukat, A., Azhar, W., Raza, Q.-U.-A., Tahir, A., Abideen, M. Z. U., Zia, M. A. B., Bashir, M. A., & Rehim, A. (2025) · Biotechnology for Biofuels and Bioproducts · doi:10.1186/s13068-025-02694-7 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Optimization of the biomass production of oil algae Chlorella minutissima UTEX2341
Li, Z., Yuan, H., Yang, J., & Li, B. (2011) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2011.07.004 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Sundaram, T., Sundaram, V. A., Dey, N., Gulothungan, G., Subbaiya, R., Govarthanan, M., Karmegam, N., & Kim, W. (2022) · Fuel · doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2022.123494 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Biofuel Production in Ireland-An Approach to 2020 Targets with a Focus on Algal Biomass
Murphy, F., Devlin, G., Deverell, R., & McDonnell, K. (2013) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en6126391 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“Moreover, municipal wastewater streams can be harvest to provide additional nutrients [13].”
BackgroundBioactive Compounds from Marine Organisms: Potential for Bone Growth and Healing
Carson, M. A., & Clarke, S. A. (2018) · Marine Drugs · doi:10.3390/md16090340 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“Algal aquaculture requires consideration of temperature, light levels, hydrodynamic and general stress levels, as well as many other factors [100].”
Background
- Authors
- Singh, A., Nigam, P. S., & Murphy, J. D.
- Affiliations
- University College Cork (IE)
- University of Ulster (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Nigam, Poonam Singh
- Venue
- Bioresource Technology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-01
- Volume
- 102
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 26-34
- ISSN
- 0960-8524 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2124790961
- Cited by
- 476
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 43 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 35
- FWCI
- 1.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Bioresource Technology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › Algal biology and biofuel production
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Microbial Metabolic Engineering and Bioproduction
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biochemistry › Lipid metabolism and biosynthesis
- Keywords
- algal biofuels, microalgae, lipid accumulation, triglyceride synthesis, algae cultivation, algal harvesting, lipid recovery, commercialization, economic problems, alternative energy
- MeSH terms
- Forecasting, Oils, Triglycerides, Biomass, Lipid Metabolism, Biofuels, Microalgae
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