Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning

In the paper

“Indeed, many experiments supported the counterintuitive prediction that studying worked-out examples facilitates schema construction and transfer performance more than actually solving the equivalent problems does (van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002; also see Sweller et al., 1998, for an overview).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Section 4 states that worked examples are more likely than conventional problems to support schema construction and that numerous studies found superior performance and transfer. The Discussion says this paper's own experiment did not find a significant performance advantage, but the cited claim concerns the broader experimental literature the paper reports. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sweller et al., 1998 source

In the paper

“Simultaneously performing the tasks and studying the information would almost certainly cause cognitive overload (Kester et al., 2001;Marcus, Cooper, & Sweller, 1996).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  Section 2 recommends presenting supportive information before task clusters, and section 2.1 explains that working-memory capacity is limited. These passages support separating study of supportive information from task performance, but they do not say that doing both simultaneously would almost certainly cause cognitive overload. The Discussion (section 6) calls the preferred timing an assumption needing further support. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  cites Kester et al., 2001 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Marcus, Cooper, & Sweller, 1996 source

In the paper

“The second is called procedural information and is best presented precisely when it is needed during task performance; it pertains to the how-to instructions for the application of rules (Kester, Kirschner, van Merriënboer, & Baumer, 2001).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Section 2.1 states that prerequisite information is best presented during practice, when learners need it. Section 4.2.5 includes procedures for operating the system among that prerequisite information, supporting the citing sentence’s description of procedural how-to information. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites Kester, Kirschner, van Merriënboer, & Baumer, 2001 source

In the paper

“For subsequent task classes, only new (additional) supportive information should be presented-extending the set of interacting elements (Pollock et al., 2002).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The paper describes a progression from isolated elements to learning their interactions in a second phase (Abstract; Results and Discussion). But it says that the second phase presented all the information needed for understanding, not only new or additional information. It does not prescribe this rule for subsequent task classes. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites Pollock et al., 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Such embedded support is clearly more effective than nonintegrated support (i.e., the parent running alongside and shouting”

In the paper

“We conclude that CLT offers useful guidelines for decreasing intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load, so that sufficient processing capacity is left for genuine learning.”

In the paper

“Since then, there has been accumulating evidence that both part-task approaches to sequencing and instructional design models driven by separate objectives do not work well for complex performances that require the integration of skills, knowledge, and attitudes and the extensive coordination of constituent skills in new problem situations (see van Merriënboer, 1997, for a complete discussion).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites van Merriënboer, 1997

In the paper

“For novice learners, learning and performing conventional tasks are different and incompatible processes.”

In the paper

“But Naylor and Briggs (1963) already indicated in the early 1960s that they are not very suitable for learning complex tasks requiring much coordination between their distinct parts or constituent skills.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Naylor and Briggs (1963) source

In the paper

“Each new task class contains learning tasks that are in the zone of proximal development of the learners (Vygotsky, 1934(Vygotsky, /1987)).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Vygotsky, 1934/1987

In the paper

“Learning tasks within a simpler task class are associated with a lower intrinsic cognitive load than learning tasks within a more complex task class (Bannert, 2002).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bannert, 2002 source

In the paper

“The intrinsic complexity of information supporting the performance of variable, nonrecurrent task aspects is typically higher than that for information specifying the performance of highly consistent, recurrent task aspects.”

In the paper

“In our theoretical framework, the first is called supportive information and is best presented before equivalent learning tasks; it pertains to the knowledge necessary for problem solving and reasoning.”

In the paper

“This effect may explain the common finding that learners who need the most support are least inclined to use nonintegrated support systems, such as manuals or job aids (Carroll & Rosson, 1987).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Carroll & Rosson, 1987

In the paper

“And like worked-out examples, they decrease extraneous cognitive load (van Merriënboer, Schuurman, de Croock, & Paas, 2002).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites van Merriënboer, Schuurman, de Croock, & Paas, 2002 source

In the paper

“Several experiments have reported the superiority of completion tasks over conventional tasks (e.g., Paas, 1992;Stark, 1999;van Merriënboer, 1990;van Merriënboer & de Croock, 1992).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Paas, 1992 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Stark, 1999
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites van Merriënboer, 1990

In the paper

“Low-complexity information, however, may better be presented precisely when learners need it during their work on the learning tasks.”

In the paper

“Within one task class, cognitive load may be further controlled by starting the task class with worked-out examples, progressing with low-load tasks, and ending with conventional problems.”

In the paper

“It is clearly impossible to use highly complex learning tasks from the start of a course or training program because this would yield excessive cognitive load for the learners, with negative effects on learning, performance, and motivation (Sweller, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sweller, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998 source

In the paper

“A severe risk of all of these approaches is that learners have difficulties learning because they are overwhelmed by the task complexity.”

In the paper

“In general, an overreliance on part-task practice is not helpful to complex learning.”

In the paper

“It is best presented precisely when learners need it during their work on learning tasks”

In the paper

“Repeating supportive information from previous task classes may even be harmful.”

In the paper

“If temporal or spatial split-attention effects are not fully prevented, the presentation of procedural information before the learning tasks may be more effective than its presentation during practice.”

In the paper

“Integrating the multiple sources of information by, for instance, using balloon help features or spoken text for procedural information may reduce extraneous cognitive load (Mayer & Moreno, 2002).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer & Moreno, 2002 source

In the paper

“First, presenting procedural information precisely when it is needed to perform particular actions prevents temporal split-attention effects.”

In the paper

“The procedural information prescribing the performance of recurrent task aspects, and possibly the facts and concepts prerequisite to correct performance of the procedures, typically exhibits low-intrinsic complexity.”

In the paper

“Over the last decade, researchers (van Merriënboer, 1997;van Merriënboer, Jelsma, & Paas, 1992;van Merriënboer, Clark, & de Croock, 2002) developed an instructional design model for complex learning consistent with CLT.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites van Merriënboer, 1997
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites van Merriënboer, Jelsma, & Paas, 1992 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites van Merriënboer, Clark, & de Croock, 2002 source

In the paper

“This is not to say that a strong theory of cognitive load alone is sufficient to develop a useful instructional design model for complex learning.”

In the paper

“It does not guarantee that the problem will be solved.”

In the paper

“Although CLT has a cognitive process view of learning and the 4C/ID model has a design point of view, both theories are fully consistent with each other.”

In the paper

“Information presentation separated in time must be integrated, which results in a higher extraneous cognitive load (Mayer & Sims, 1994).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer & Sims, 1994 source

In the paper

“According to the 4C/ID model, additional part-task practice starts only after the learners have been introduced to the recurrent aspects in the context of the learning tasks, so that part-task practice takes place in a fruitful cognitive context that allows learners to identify the activities that are required to integrate the recurrent aspects in the whole task (Carlson, Khoo, & Elliot, 1990).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Carlson, Khoo, & Elliot, 1990 source

In the paper

“It is critical that helpful cognitive schemas are constructed in a process of elaboration whereby nonarbitrary relations are established between new information elements and the learner's prior knowledge.”

In the paper

“the presentation of supportive information followed by elaboration and induction does not yield an algorithmic description of how to perform particular task aspects, but rather it yields a general heuristic knowledge that may be helpful for performing particular nonrecurrent aspects of the learning tasks.”

In the paper

“To ensure that freed processing resources are actually devoted to learning, the explicit use of instructional methods that increase germane cognitive load may be required.”

In the paper

“Applying the automated schemas warrants that these aspects are successfully performed.”

In the paper

“For subsequent learning tasks, procedural information is quickly faded as the learners gain more expertise.”

In the paper

“Experts can perform recurrent task aspects effectively because they have at their disposal more or less automated schemas that associte particular characteristics of the problem situation (i.e., conditions) to particular actions.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Anderson, 1993
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Anderson, 1996
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Newell, 1991

In the paper

“it is critical that the learners elaborate on it so that it can be easily retrieved from long-term memory when necessary for the learning tasks.”

In the paper

“Retrieving the already constructed schema is expected to be less cognitively demanding than activating the externally presented complex information in working memory during task performance.”

In the paper

“Supportive information is, thus, best presented explicitly just before the task class for which it is relevant.”

In the paper

“if a very high level of automaticity is desired for particular recurrent aspects, the learning tasks may not provide enough practice to reach this level because the responsible learning process, strengthening, requires large amounts of not available repetition.”

In the paper

“It is best presented before a class of equivalent learning tasks”

In the paper

“Therefore, procedural information is best connected to the first learning task for which the recurrent aspect is relevant.”

In the paper

“the 4C/ID model relies on several specific learning theories (in particular, Anderson's 1993, 1996, Adaptive Control Theory) to prescribe instructional methods for each of its four components.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Anderson's 1993, 1996

In the paper

“asking questions about worked-out examples or completion tasks is important to ensure that learners elaborate them (see Stark, Mandl, Gruber, & Renkl, 2002).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Stark, Mandl, Gruber, & Renkl, 2002 source

In the paper

“Such effects may arise when multiple sources of information must be mentally integrated in order to follow procedural instructions and simultaneously manipulate the task environment.”

In the paper

“Furthermore, it allows for chunking so that a newly constructed schema can be treated as one information item (Gobet et al., 2001;Miller, 1956) and is thus easily retrievable from long-term memory and accessible in working memory during subsequent work on the learning tasks.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gobet et al., 2001 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Miller, 1956

In the paper

“procedural information presentation and subsequent knowledge compilation yield an algorithmic description of how to perform recurrent aspects of the learning task.”

In the paper

“The whole-task approach that is characteristic of our framework and other recent instructional theories implies that recurrent aspects of performance are not trained separately but only practiced in the context of whole learning tasks.”

In the paper

“Because it is redundant with what the learners already know, it may increase extraneous cognitive load because learners have to determine that the presented information is actually identical with their prior knowledge (Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller, 1998).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller, 1998 source

In the paper

“this is not a goal in itself but merely a means to prevent cognitive overload and (equally important) free processing resources that can be devoted to learning processes, such as schema construction and automation.”

In the paper

“Experts may even reach a level of performance in which they perform routines automatically, without conscious control or the need to invest mental effort.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Anderson, 1993
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Anderson, 1996
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Newell, 1991

In the paper

“Second, presenting procedural information so that it is fully integrated with the task environment prevents spatial split-attention effects.”