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Cited by 205Visual and Cognitive Learning ProcessesInnovative Teaching and Learning MethodsAging and Gerontology Research

Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency

Open access
Van Gerven, P.W.M, Paas, F.G.W.C, Van Merriënboer, J.J.G, Schmidt, H.G·2002·Learning and Instruction
DOI 10.1016/s0959-4752(01)00017-2
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AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This experiment compared worked examples with conventional problem solving for younger and older adults learning a water-jug task. Older adults showed a larger efficiency advantage from worked examples, using less time and lower cognitive load while maintaining comparable performance, but the predicted stronger benefit for far transfer was not found.

Key findings

  • Older participants in the worked-examples condition reported lower subjective cognitive load (M = 3.19, SD = 1.71) than those solving conventional problems (M = 4.79, SD = 2.16), and spent less training time per problem (81.24 s vs. 206.58 s). Near-transfer performance was similar (.97 vs. .95), while far-transfer performance was numerically higher (.55 vs. .40), though training format had no significant performance effect.
  • The Age Group × Training Format interactions were significant for training efficiency, F(1, 50) = 5.45, p < .05; subjective cognitive load, F(1, 50) = 6.94, p < .05; and training time, F(1, 50) = 15.73, p < .001, indicating that older adults benefited disproportionately from worked examples.
  • Younger adults did not benefit from worked examples: their mean training efficiency was lower in the worked-examples condition (0.55) than in the conventional-problems condition (0.86), and their subjective cognitive load was higher (2.77 vs. 2.22), although both efficiencies were positive.
  • Hypothesis 2 was not supported: the Age Group × Training Format × Transfer Distance interaction for training efficiency was not significant, F(1, 49) = 0.10, p > .05, although separate Age Group × Training Format interactions were significant for near transfer, F(1, 50) = 6.91, p < .05, and far transfer, F(1, 49) = 8.20, p < .01.

Methods

  • The design was a 2 × 2 between-groups experiment with Age Group (young vs. old) and Training Format (conventional problems vs. worked examples), plus a within-groups factor of Transfer Distance (near vs. far). N = 54: 30 psychology students aged 18–30 (median 19.50) and 24 older adults aged 61–76 (median 66.00) recruited from the Maastricht Aging Study pool; participants were randomly assigned to conditions.
  • Participants completed a computerized water-jug task on a touch screen. Training consisted of four problems either solved conventionally or studied as worked examples; the transfer test had 23 problems, with 11 classified as near transfer and 12 as far transfer. Measures included a shortened Groningen intelligence test, a computation-span test, a 9-point subjective cognitive-load scale, training time, and proportion of solved problems.
  • Training efficiency was calculated using Paas and Van Merriënboer’s z-score procedure combining mental effort and performance. ANOVAs were run on control variables, training time, cognitive load, performance, and efficiency, with transfer distance included for efficiency.

Limitations

  • The paper states that worked examples did not significantly improve performance in either age group, contrary to earlier research. It suggests the contrast between conditions may have been too weak, older adults’ far-transfer scores had greater variability, the near-transfer problems may already have been too complex for older participants, and the young may have reached a ceiling on the task.
  • The paper also states that Hypothesis 2 was not supported because the older adults’ worked-example advantage did not differ between near and far transfer.
  • Evident from the text: the sample was small, especially the older group (n = 24), and one older participant did not reach the far-transfer section, producing unequal degrees of freedom. The study used a single task domain and a single subjective load measure, and the young participants’ task may have been too easy to reveal training-format effects.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/s0959-4752(01)00017-2

Cites

48 of 48 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

1 of 45 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Findingown data

    With respect to the elderly, the efficiency of studying worked examples is higher than the efficiency of solving conventional problems, in that less training time and cognitive load leads to a comparable level of performance.

    “As predicted, the results show that -with respect to the elderlythe efficiency of studying worked examples is higher than the efficiency of solving conventional problems in that less training time and cognitive load leads to a comparable level of performance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The young's mean scores suggest a slight negative effect of worked examples on training efficiency.

    “Their mean scores even suggest a slight negative effect of worked examples on training efficiency.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    The absence of a significant interaction between age group, training format, and transfer distance with respect to training efficiency is not in line with Hypothesis 2.

    “The absence of a significant interaction between age group, training format, and transfer distance with respect to training efficiency is not in line with Hypothesis 2.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    There is a huge performance difference between the age groups.

    “Not surprisingly, there is a huge performance difference between the age groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Computation spans differed significantly between the age groups, F(1, 50)=28.40, MSE=1.45, p<0.001.

    “However, computation spans differed significantly between the age groups, F(1, 50)=28.40,MSE=1.45,pϽ0.001.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 13
  • May combine two claims. 30

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The similarity between the interaction patterns of cognitive load and training time suggests that training time might as well be used as a component in calculating training efficiency.

    “The similarity between the interaction patterns of cognitive load and training time furthermore suggests that training time might as well be used as a component in calculating training efficiency (see Pollock, Chandler, & Sweller, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pollock, Chandler, & Sweller, 2002 source

      In Results and Discussion, the paper reports instruction-time and mental-load results for the same instructional conditions. It calculates instructional efficiency from performance and mental-load ratings, but the available passages do not establish that similar interaction patterns justify using training time in that calculation. (LLM, conf=0.77)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were no significant intelligence differences within the age groups and between the training conditions.

    “Within the age groups and between the training conditions, there were no significant intelligence differences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The employed worked examples were not effective enough to evoke a significant performance enhancement in either age group, contrary to previous research (Paas, 1992; Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994b; Pillay, 1994; Ward & Sweller, 1990).

    “In fact, the employed worked examples were not effective enough to evoke a significant performance enhancement in either age group, which is contrary to previous research (Paas, 1992;Paas & Van Merrie ¨nboer, 1994b;Pillay, 1994;Ward & Sweller, 1990).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Paas, 1992 source
    • cites Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Pillay, 1994 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The interaction between Age Group and Training Format, F(1, 50)=6.94, MSE=2.23, p<0.05, suggests a disproportional 'decrease' in SCL for the elderly participants.

    “More than that, the interaction between Age Group and Training Format, F(1, 50)=6.94,MSE=2.23,pϽ0.05, suggests a disproportional 'decrease' in SCL for the elderly participants.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The analysis of variance reveals an effect of Age Group, F(1, 50)=36.27, MSE=0.92, p<0.001, as well as an interaction between Age Group and Training Format, F(1, 50)=5.45, p<0.05, which is in accordance with Hypothesis 1.

    “The analysis of variance reveals an effect of Age Group, F(1, 50)=36.27,MSE=0.92,pϽ0.001, as well as an interaction between Age Group and Training Format, F(1, 50)=5.45,pϽ0.05, which is in accordance with Hypothesis 1.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There is an effect of Age Group, F(1, 50)=13.43, p=.001, but no effect of Training Format, F(1, 50)=1.66, p>0.05, on Subjective Cognitive Load.

    “Furthermore, there is an effect of Age Group, F(1, 50)=13.43,p=.001, but no effect of Training Format, F(1, 50)=1.66,pϾ0.05.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There is neither an effect of Training Format nor an interaction on performance.

    “However, there is neither an effect of Training Format nor an interaction (see Table 2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There is no interaction between Age Group, Training Format, and Transfer Distance, F(1, 49)=0.10, MSE=0.19, p>0.05, which is not in line with Hypothesis 2.

    “However, there is no interaction between Age Group, Training Format, and Transfer Distance, F(1, 49)=0.10,MSE=0.19,pϾ0.05, which is not in line with Hypothesis 2.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were no differences in Computation Span within the age groups and between the training conditions.

    “With respect to Computation Span, there were no differences within the age groups and between the training conditions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The efficiencies of both training formats are positive for the young participants and negative for the elderly participants.

    “As can be seen in Fig. 4, the efficiencies of both training formats are positive for the young participants and negative for the elderly participants.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The performance difference between age groups holds for both Near-Transfer Performance, F(1, 50)=10.98, MSE=.00, p<0.01, and Far-Transfer Performance, F(1, 49)=44.09, MSE=.05, p<0.001.

    “This holds for both Near-Transfer Performance, F(1, 50)=10.98,MSE=.00, pϽ0.01, and Far-Transfer Performance, F(1, 49)=44.09,MSE=.05, pϽ0.001.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Young participants had a mean computation span score of 4.97 (SD=1.33), while elderly participants scored 3.21 (SD=0.98).

    “Where the young participants had a mean score of 4.97 (SD=1.33), the elderly scored no more than 3.21 (SD=0.98).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both worked examples and conventional problems required relatively little cognitive load and led to almost the same performance level, which is reflected by the positive efficiency scores.

    “However, both worked examples and conventional problems required relatively little cognitive load and led to almost the same performance level, which is reflected by the positive efficiency scores.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Contrary to the young participants, for whom the Worked Examples condition appears to be relatively inefficient, the elderly display a substantial efficiency 'gain' in the Worked Examples condition relative to the Conventional Problems condition, the latter of which remains highly inefficient.

    “However, contrary to the young participants, for whom the Worked Examples condition appears to be relatively inefficient, the elderly display a substantial efficiency 'gain' in the Worked Examples condition relative to the Conventional Problems condition, the latter of which remains highly inefficient.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Performance was especially poorer in the more complex far-transfer domain, which is a confirmation of earlier research findings (Czaja & Sharit, 1993; Gilinsky & Judd, 1994; Lorsbach & Simpson, 1988).

    “Performance was especially poorer in the more complex far-transfer domain, which is a confirmation of earlier research findings (Czaja & Sharit, 1993;Gilinsky & Judd, 1994;Lorsbach & Simpson, 1988).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Czaja & Sharit, 1993 source
    • cites Gilinsky & Judd, 1994 source
    • cites Lorsbach & Simpson, 1988 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The old participants were less efficient, performed poorer, and showed higher levels of cognitive load and training time than the young.

    “The old participants were less efficient, performed poorer, and showed higher levels of cognitive load and training time than the young (see Tables 1 and 2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The analysis of variance reveals main effects for the factors Age Group, F(1, 50)=65.73, MSE=2408.00, p<0.001, and Training Format, F(1, 50)=28.72, p<0.001, on Training Time.

    “The analysis of variance reveals main effects for the factors Age Group, F(1, 50)=65.73,MSE=2408.00,pϽ0.001, and Training Format F(1, 50)=28.72,pϽ0.001.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Working-memory abilities were assessed with Salthouse and Babcock's (1991) computation-span test, a variant of the reading-span test.

    “Working-memory abilities were assessed with Salthouse and Babcock's (1991) computation-span test, which is a variant of the well-known reading-span test (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Salthouse & Babcock, 1991 source
    • cites Daneman & Carpenter, 1980 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A training format is considered efficient if a relatively low mental effort results in a relatively high performance, and inefficient if a relatively high mental effort results in a relatively low performance.

    “That is, a training format is considered efficient if a relatively low mental effort results in a relatively high performance, whereas a training format is considered inefficient if a relatively high mental effort results in a relatively low performance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Paas & Van Merrienboer, 1993 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In sum, CLT-based training formats optimize learning by making efficient use of available cognitive capacity, directing the learner to the essentials of the subject matter and stimulating the construction of cognitive schemata.

    “In sum, CLT-based training formats optimize learning by making an efficient use of the available cognitive capacity, thereby directing the learner to the essentials of the subject matter and stimulating the construction of cognitive schemata.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    An optimal use of working memory requires a maximum number of mental operations that directly contribute to the learning process and a minimum number of operations that do not contribute to the learning process.

    “In a nutshell, CLT claims that an optimal use of working memory requires a maximum number of mental operations that directly contribute to the learning process and a minimum number of operations that do not contribute to the learning process.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Sweller, 1988 source
    • cites Sweller, 1994 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    According to Paas and Van Merrienboer (1993), the ratio between invested mental effort and test performance can be interpreted as the efficiency of a training format.

    “According to Paas and Van Merrie ¨nboer (1993), the ratio between invested mental effort and test performance can be interpreted as the efficiency of a training format.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Paas & Van Merrienboer, 1993 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The water-jug problem appeared to meet the requirements for the task: appealing to common sense, straightforward enough to master in a relatively short time for old participants, and complex enough to prevent a ceiling effect for young participants.

    “Luch-ins' (1942) classical water-jug problem appeared to meet these requirements.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Luchins, 1942 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants from both groups were randomly assigned to the experimental conditions.

    “Participants from both groups were randomly assigned to the experimental conditions (n=15 for the young; n=12 for the elderly).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Cognitive load theory is directly concerned with the limits of working memory.

    “CLT is directly concerned with the limits of working memory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Sweller, 1988 source
    • cites Sweller, 1994 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    To check the intellectual comparability of the experimental groups, a shortened version of the Groningen intelligence test was administered.

    “To check the intellectual comparability of the experimental groups, a shortened version of the Groningen intelligence test (GIT; Luteijn & Van der Ploeg, 1983;Snijders & Verhage, 1962) was administered.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Luteijn & Van der Ploeg, 1983

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Snijders & Verhage, 1962

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The decline of working memory in aging includes a reduced ability to inhibit irrelevant or distracting information, which likely prevents older people from properly processing task-relevant information.

    “A third decline concerns the ability to inhibit irrelevant or distracting information (Allen, Madden, Groth, & Crozier, 1992;Hasher & Zacks, 1988), which is likely to withhold older people from the proper processing of information that is relevant for the task at hand.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Allen et al., 1992 source
    • cites Hasher & Zacks, 1988 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    If schema construction recurs, the result is an accumulation of schemata and a lowering of the perceived task complexity.

    “If this process recurs, the result is an accumulation of schemata and a lowering of the perceived task complexity (Van Gerven, Paas, Van Merrie ¨nboer, & Schmidt, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Van Gerven et al., 2000 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The decline of working memory in aging includes a reduction of working-memory capacity, which reduces the number of information elements that can be processed, undermining comprehension and learning of complex material.

    “First, due to a reduction of the working-memory capacity (Salthouse & Babcock, 1991;Wingfield, Stine, Lahar, & Aberdeen, 1988), less information elements can be processed, which undermines comprehension and learning of complex material.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Salthouse & Babcock, 1991 source
    • cites Wingfield, Stine, Lahar, & Aberdeen, 1988 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    For novices, problem solving is a rather ineffective means of learning because it imposes an extremely high extraneous cognitive load, whereas the level of germane cognitive load remains relatively low.

    “For novices, who have not yet acquired extensive cognitive schemata, problem solving turns out to be a rather ineffective means of learning, because it imposes an extremely high extraneous cognitive load (Sweller, 1988), whereas the level of germane cognitive load remains relatively low.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sweller, 1988 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    A 9-point symmetrical category scale was used as a subjective cognitive-load measure, and it has been evaluated as a highly reliable and sensitive instrument for assessing cognitive load.

    “A 9-point symmetrical category scale was used as a subjective cognitive-load (SCL) measure (after Paas, Van Merrie ¨nboer, & Adam, 1994).”
    • Also stated in: § 5.2.3. Subjective cognitive-load scale · boosted
      “Paas and Van Merrie ¨nboer (1994b) evaluated the scale as a highly reliable and sensitive instrument for the assessment of cognitive load (a=.82).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Paas, Van Merrienboer, & Adam, 1994 source
    • cites Paas & Van Merrienboer, 1994b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The decline of working memory in aging includes a decrease in overall processing speed, which hinders the simultaneous activation of mutually referring information elements.

    “Second, the overall processing speed decreases (Cerella, 1990;Fisk & Warr, 1996;Myerson, Hale, Wagstaff, Poon, & Smith, 1990;Salthouse 1993Salthouse , 1996)), which hinders the simultaneous activation of mutually referring information elements.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cerella, 1990 source
    • cites Fisk & Warr, 1996 source
    • cites Myerson et al., 1990 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Old adults display far more statistical variance than young adults on various cognitive tasks, so that subtle differences between conditions tend to get overshadowed.

    “With respect to the elderly, a possible explanation for this finding is the frequently observed phenomenon that old adults display far more statistical variance than young adults on various cognitive tasks (Anstey, Stankov, & Lord, 1993), so that subtle differences between conditions tend to get overshadowed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Anstey, Stankov, & Lord, 1993 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    According to CLT, studying worked examples is a more efficient means of training complex skills than solving conventional problems.

    “According to CLT, studying worked examples is a more efficient means of training complex skills than solving conventional problems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Sweller, 1988 source
    • cites Sweller, 1994 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    These results are in accordance with Salthouse and Babcock's (1991) study, in which a gradual age-related decrease of computation-span scores was found.

    “These results are in accordance with Salthouse and Babcock's (1991) study, in which a gradual age-related decrease of computation-span scores was found.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Salthouse and Babcock's (1991) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The interaction pattern suggests that the elderly participants are disproportionally favored when studying worked examples, which supports Hypothesis 1.

    “The interaction pattern, depicted in Fig. 5, suggests that the elderly participants are disproportionally favored when studying worked examples, which supports Hypothesis 1.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Although the near- and far-transfer problems reflected different levels of complexity, the complexity of the near-transfer problems could have been already that high that no differential effects were obtained.

    “Although the nearand far-transfer problems reflected different levels of complexity, the complexity of the near-transfer problems could have been already that high that no differential effects were obtained.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The predicted interaction was not obtained because the near-transfer problems, which were supposed to be rather simple, were in fact experienced as rather complex by the elderly.

    “It seems that the predicted interaction was not obtained, because the near-transfer problems, which were supposed to be rather simple, were in fact experienced as rather complex by the elderly.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The near-transfer problems were expected to be rather simple.
38 of 38

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    To optimize the acquisition of complex material in elderly people, information should be presented in a highly efficient manner.

    “this brings us to the assumption that to optimize the acquisition of complex material in elderly people information should be presented in a highly efficient manner.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    CLT-based training accommodates the cognitive abilities of elderly persons particularly well.

    “Since these limits are especially evident in elderly persons, it is assumed that CLT-based training accommodates the cognitive abilities of this group particularly well.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The cognitive capacity of elderly people is smaller than the cognitive capacity of young people.

    “The framework assumes that the cognitive capacity of elderly people is smaller than the cognitive capacity of young people, so that any gain in cognitive capacity caused by a lowering of extraneous load is proportionally larger for the elderly than for the young.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Any gain in cognitive capacity caused by a lowering of extraneous load is proportionally larger for the elderly than for the young.

    “The framework assumes that the cognitive capacity of elderly people is smaller than the cognitive capacity of young people, so that any gain in cognitive capacity caused by a lowering of extraneous load is proportionally larger for the elderly than for the young.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Any increase of germane cognitive load is proportionally larger for the elderly than for the young.

    “The same holds for any increase of germane cognitive load.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Compared to young people, the elderly have a much richer and more integrated body of general and specific knowledge at their disposal.

    “It is true that, compared to young people, the elderly have a much richer and more integrated body of general and, depending on their professional background, specific knowledge at their disposal.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The near-transfer problems were expected to be rather simple.

    “the near-transfer problems, which were supposed to be rather simple, were in fact experienced as rather complex by the elderly”
7 of 7

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Studying worked-out examples facilitates schema construction and transfer performance more than actually solving the equivalent problems does.

    “Indeed, many experiments supported the counterintuitive prediction that studying worked-out examples facilitates schema construction and transfer performance more than actually solving the equivalent problems does (van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002; also see Sweller et al., 1998, for an overview).”

    From Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning (2003) · cites this paper as van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002

  • If studies such as Denessen et al.'s also incorporated cognitive load measures, it would become possible to determine how the antecedents of collaborative learning affect cognitive load and how cognitive load in turn affects the outcome of the collaborative process.

    “When studies like the one conducted by Denessen et al. (2008) would also incorporate cognitive load measures (e.g., the unidimensional nine-point symmetrical mental effort rating scale [Paas 1992], heart-rate variability [Paas and Van Merriënboer 1994], taskevoked pupillary responses [Van Gerven et al. 2002], or responses to secondary tasks [Marcus et al. 1996]), it would become possible to”

    From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as Van Gerven et al. 2002

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • ConsistentF(1, 50) = 13.43reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 50)=13.43,p = .001”

1 of 1

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Jolles, J., Houx, P. J., Van Boxtel, M. P. J., & Ponds, R. W. H. M. (Eds.). (1995). The Maastricht aging study: determinants of cognitive aging. Maastricht, The Netherlands: Neuropsych Publishers.

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Related

Authors
Van Gerven, P. W. M., Paas, F. G. W. C., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Schmidt, H. G.
Affiliations
  • Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
  • Erasmus University Rotterdam (NL)
Venue
Learning and Instruction
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2002-02
Volume
12
Issue
1
Pages
87-105
ISSN
0959-4752 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/s0959-4752(01)00017-2
OpenAlex
W2121561709
Semantic Scholar
a5c43574830e349c8eb1306745e37fe29e9ed976
Cited by
205
References
48
Citations by year
2026: 10 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 10
FWCI
11.91
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations
  • Learning and Instruction (publishedVersion)
  • Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
Funders
Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
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Keywords
cognitive load theory, worked examples, cognitive aging, older adults, working memory, training efficiency, skill acquisition, practice questions, training duration, cognitive resources

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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