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Positive Conceptions of Perfectionism: Approaches, Evidence, Challenges
Abstract
Almost 30 years ago, Hamachek (1978) suggested that 2 forms of perfectionism be distinguished, a positive form labeled "normal perfectionism" and a negative form labeled "neurotic perfectionism." Focusing on the positive, we present an overview of the different empirical conceptions of the 2 forms of perfectionism and a common framework for the 2 basic approaches: the dimensional approach differentiating 2 dimensions of perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns) and the group-based approach differentiating 2 groups of perfectionists (healthy perfectionists and unhealthy perfectionists). Moreover, we review the evidence demonstrating that (a) perfectionistic strivings are associated with positive characteristics and (b) healthy perfectionists show higher levels of positive characteristics compared to unhealthy perfectionists and nonperfectionists. Although questions on core facets, positive effects, and developmental antecedents of positive forms of perfectionism remain, our findings suggest that self-oriented perfectionistic strivings are positive, if perfectionists are not overly concerned about mistakes and negative evaluations by others.
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“We include tests using semi-partial correlations as well as raw correlations in light of recent evidence indicating that the associations between different dimensions of perfectionism and various outcomes differ depending on whether the raw or the semi-partial correlation is used (A. P. Hill & Curran, 2015; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Stoeber & Otto, 2006
In the citing paper
“This is a particularly salient issue when examining correlates and outcomes of perfectionistic strivings in which raw correlations often illustrate mixed findings whereas semi-partial correlations often reveal relatively more positive aspects of perfectionistic strivings (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Stoeber & Otto, 2006
In the citing paper
“These differing findings are likely due to the often considerable amount of overlapping variance between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns that is accounted for when using semi-partial correlations, but is left unattended when using raw correlations (Enns & Cox, 2002; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Stoeber & Otto, 2006
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“Indeed, many individuals display perfectionistic tendencies in at least one area of their lives (Stoeber & Stoeber, 2009), and researchers have observed bene fi cial and harmful effects of perfectionism on a wide range of outcomes (see Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
InfluentialLi, N., Zhang, X., Zheng, Y., Liu, Q., Niu, S., Qin, Y., Zhang, Y., Liu, Y., & Wang, J. (2024) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s479381 · Cited by 7
Li, G., Mao, J., Mu, X., & Cai, Y. (2024) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-024-05906-6 · Cited by 7
“Perfectionism, a multi-dimensional trait, captures relatively enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Frost et al., 1990; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
InfluentialMontano, R. L. T. (2025) · The Educational and Developmental Psychologist · doi:10.1080/20590776.2024.2445292 · Cited by 7
“Scholars argue that it is best to look at perfectionism as a two-dimensional construct composed of the following components: Perfectionistic Strivings (PS) and Evaluation Concerns (EC) (Stoeber, 2018b; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
InfluentialBao, H., & Yu, L. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1671941 · Cited by 7
“In this sample, higher levels of perfectionism attenuated or even reversed the negative effect of anxiety, suggesting that perfectionistic strivings may sometimes operate adaptively, providing motivation and structure (Stoeber and Otto, 2006).”
InfluentialPredicting psychiatric symptoms by personality types for gifted students
Lee, S.-Y., An, D., & Choe, S.-U. (2019) · High Ability Studies · doi:10.1080/13598139.2019.1589428 · Cited by 7
Memory reconsolidation in psychotherapy for severe perfectionism within borderline personality
Vaz, A., & Ecker, B. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23058 · Cited by 8
Sirois, F. M., Toussaint, L. L., Hirsch, J. K., Kohls, N., & Offenbächer, M. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111036 · Cited by 7
McKay, J., Williams, K., & Stewart, J. (2023) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-023-10287-y · Cited by 14
“Although perfectionism scales measure both conceptually similar and different dimensions of per - fectionism (Kawamoto et al., 2023), they have been found to load onto two higher-order dimensions (Stoeber & Otto, 2006; Egan et al., 2022).”
BackgroundRichard, A., & Dunkley, D. M. (2024) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2024.02.001 · Cited by 7
Perfectionnisme inadapté, pensées répétitives non constructives et réactivité émotionnelle
Kornacka, M., & Douilliez, C. (2014) · Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive · doi:10.1016/j.jtcc.2014.03.001 · Cited by 7
오유경, & Kim, E.-J. (2014) · Korean Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.17315/kjhp.2014.19.4.015 · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Stoeber, J., & Otto, K.
- Affiliations
- University of Kent (GB)
- Leipzig University (DE)
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2006-11
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 295-319
- ISSN
- 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7957
- OpenAlex
- W2144974643
- Semantic Scholar
- 785b3aa20a9b918778d9507b067697b21b6ae6a4
- Cited by
- 1,779
- References
- 122
- Citations by year
- 2026: 125 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 118 · 2023: 114 · 2022: 127 · 2021: 123 · 2020: 114 · 2019: 101 · 2018: 86 · 2017: 107 · 2016: 105 · 2015: 103 · 2014: 98 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 70
- FWCI
- 25.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) (acceptedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders
- Keywords
- positive perfectionism, neurotic perfectionism, perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, self-oriented perfectionism
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Attitude, Humans, Personality, Social Perception
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