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Positive Conceptions of Perfectionism: Approaches, Evidence, Challenges
Abstract
Almost 30 years ago, Hamachek (1978) suggested that 2 forms of perfectionism be distinguished, a positive form labeled "normal perfectionism" and a negative form labeled "neurotic perfectionism." Focusing on the positive, we present an overview of the different empirical conceptions of the 2 forms of perfectionism and a common framework for the 2 basic approaches: the dimensional approach differentiating 2 dimensions of perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns) and the group-based approach differentiating 2 groups of perfectionists (healthy perfectionists and unhealthy perfectionists). Moreover, we review the evidence demonstrating that (a) perfectionistic strivings are associated with positive characteristics and (b) healthy perfectionists show higher levels of positive characteristics compared to unhealthy perfectionists and nonperfectionists. Although questions on core facets, positive effects, and developmental antecedents of positive forms of perfectionism remain, our findings suggest that self-oriented perfectionistic strivings are positive, if perfectionists are not overly concerned about mistakes and negative evaluations by others.
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“We include tests using semi-partial correlations as well as raw correlations in light of recent evidence indicating that the associations between different dimensions of perfectionism and various outcomes differ depending on whether the raw or the semi-partial correlation is used (A. P. Hill & Curran, 2015; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Stoeber & Otto, 2006
In the citing paper
“This is a particularly salient issue when examining correlates and outcomes of perfectionistic strivings in which raw correlations often illustrate mixed findings whereas semi-partial correlations often reveal relatively more positive aspects of perfectionistic strivings (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Stoeber & Otto, 2006
In the citing paper
“These differing findings are likely due to the often considerable amount of overlapping variance between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns that is accounted for when using semi-partial correlations, but is left unattended when using raw correlations (Enns & Cox, 2002; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Stoeber & Otto, 2006
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Personal and Familial Aspects of Perfectionism in Latino/a Students
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“© 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Perfectionism Coping Stress Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality construct that has garnered increased attention in recent years (e.g., Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
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Perfectionism and PERMA: The benefits of otheroriented perfectionism
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New Frontiers in the Treatment of Perfectionism
Shafran, R., Coughtrey, A. E., & Kothari, R. (2016) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1521/ijct.2016.9.2.156 · Cited by 31
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Stricker, J., Kröger, L., Johann, A. F., Küskens, A., Gieselmann, A., & Pietrowsky, R. (2022) · Sleep Health · doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2022.09.015 · Cited by 29
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“Because of the multi-faceted nature of perfectionism, researchers have argued that it is important to differentiate between the more adaptive (striving) and more maladaptive (performance fears) forms of perfectionism (Dunkley, Zuroff, & Blankstein, 2003; Flett & Hewitt, 2002; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
Positive and Negative Perfectionism and the Big Five Personality Factors
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“Traditionally, perfectionism has been associated with neuroticism; however, current research has established perfectionism as a multidimensional construct that includes both maladaptive and adaptive subtypes (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
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The predictive role of perfectionism on heavy work investment: A two-waves cross-lagged panel study
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Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale: the portuguese version
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“Self-oriented perfectionism is a key indicator of perfectionistic strivings, and socially prescribed perfectionism a key indicator of perfectionistic concerns (Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
Self-citationSirois, F. M., & Molnar, D. S. (2017) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2017.06.003 · Cited by 32
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POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE AFFECT IN ADOLESCENTS: AN INVESTIGATION OF THE 2 X 2 MODEL OF PERFECTIONISM
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COVID-19 psychological impact: The role of perfectionism
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The transdiagnostic process of perfectionism = El proceso transdiagnóstico del perfeccionismo
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Positive Perfectionism: Seeking the Healthy “Should”, or Should We?
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“Perfectionism is multidimensional with both adaptive and maladaptive aspects (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
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Barnett, M. D., & Johnson, D. M. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.01.017 · Cited by 26
The Effects of Perfectionism in Elite Sport: Experiences of Unhealthy Perfectionists
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“It also avoids some of the potential issues of using an approach where 76 negative facets of PC can conceal the positive associations of PS (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPerfectionism and emotional intelligence: A test of the 2×2 model of perfectionism
Gong, X., Fletcher, K. L., & Paulson, S. E. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.015 · Cited by 24
Perfectionism and achievement goals revisited: The 3 × 2 achievement goal framework
Madigan, D. J., Stoeber, J., & Passfield, L. (2016) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.10.008 · Cited by 24
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“PERFECTIONISTIC CONCERNS AND BINGE EATING 4 Extensive evidence suggests the majority of common variance among lower-order perfectionism dimensions is accounted for by two higher-order factors: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
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Rasch analysis of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale
Mitchell‐parker, K., Medvedev, O. N., Krägeloh, C. U., & Siegert, R. J. (2017) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajpy.12192 · Cited by 30
Horan, S., Flaxman, P. E., & Stride, C. (2020) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/ocp0000208 · Cited by 34
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Flow in the Academic Domain: The Role of Perfectionism and Engagement
Ljubin-Golub, T., Rijavec, M., & Jurčec, L. (2018) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-018-0369-2 · Cited by 38
Does Workload Moderate the Association Between Perfectionism and Workaholism?
Falco, A., Girardi, D., Corso, L. D., CARLO, A. D., & Sipio, A. D. (2020) · Journal of Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1027/1866-5888/a000253 · Cited by 27
Perfectionism and academic burnout: Longitudinal extension of the bifactor model of perfectionism
Seong, H., Lee, S., & Chang, E. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110589 · Cited by 33
Schilder, C. M. T., Sternheim, L. C., Aarts, E., Elburg, A. A. V., & Danner, U. N. (2021) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.23482 · Cited by 23
The Role of Standards and Discrepancy Perfectionism in Maladaptive Consumption
Chang, S. S. E., Jain, S. P., & Reimann, M. (2021) · Journal of the Association for Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/714384 · Cited by 24
“Given their opposing valences and associations with a number of outcomes (Stoeber and Otto 2006), our research focuses on standards and discrepancy perfectionism and examines their relationship with maladaptive consumption.”
Levine, S. L., Tabri, N., & Milyavskaya, M. (2021) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579421000626 · Cited by 29
Perfectionism and binge eating association: a systematic review and meta-analysis
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Perfectionism and coping styles with stress
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Striving for Perfection or for Creativity?
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The relationships between perfectionism, angry reactions, and antisocial behavior in team sport.
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Bergunde, L., & Dritschel, B. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0227564 · Cited by 33
“In contrast, perfectionistic strivings captures high standards and striving, includes self-oriented-perfectionism as well as other per-fectionism components, such as personal standards, and has been linked to wellbeing [10, 13].”
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“Together, perfectionistic striving and perfectionistic concern often reveal high positive correlations with negative outcomes (e.g., neuroticism, maladaptive coping, negative affect), and indicators of psychological maladjustment (e.g., depression) (cf. Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
InfluentialСергеевна, Ш. М., Permyakova, T. M., & Kornienko, D. S. (2023) · Psychology in Russia State of Art · doi:10.11621/pir.2023.0310 · Cited by 28
Well-Being and Perfectionism: Assessing the Mediational Role of Self-Compassion in Emerging Adults
Benedetto, L., Macidonio, S., & Ingrassia, M. (2024) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe14050091 · Cited by 32
“In their review, Stoeber and Otto [8] outlined two higher-order dimensions that emerge across studies: Perfectionistic strivings (setting high expectations for performance) and perfectionistic concerns (self-criticalness regarding performance).”
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A critical review of child perfectionism as it relates to music pedagogy
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When perfectionism leads to imperfect consumer choices: The role of dichotomous thinking
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Perfectionism, efficiency, and response bias in proof-reading performance: Extension and replication
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“Many studies have found evidence that perfectionism is constituted by two factors: adaptive perfectionism, a positive striving for achievement and maladaptive perfectionism, a tendency to make overly critical self-evaluations [13–15].”
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Perfectionism and training performance: The mediating role of other‐approach goals
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“Perfectionistic concerns capture concerns about making mistakes, feelings of discrepancy between one’s standards and performance, and negative reactions to imperfection (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
Self-citationPERFECTIONISM, PERSPECTIVE TAKING, AND SOCIAL CONNECTION IN ADOLESCENTS
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Perfectionism, Substance Use, and Mental Health in College Students: A Longitudinal Analysis
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“Stoeber et al. (2009) found relationship patterns from perfectionism and achievement goals in young Finnish ice-hockey players’ under-16, in which it was found that perfectionistic strivings were associated with mastery-approach and performance-approach goals, and perfectionistic concerns with mastery-avoidance, perfo…”
InfluentialEffectiveness for Interpersonal Problem‐Solving is Reduced in Women with Binge Eating Disorder
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Parents' perfectionism and its relation to child rearing behaviors
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Perfectionism and training distress in junior athletes: The mediating role of coping tendencies
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“…reflecting perfectionist personal standards and a self-oriented striving for perfection and perfectionistic concerns reflecting concerns about making mistakes, feelings of discrepancy between one’s standards and performance, and negative reactions to imperfection (see Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
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Fong, R. W., & Cai, Y. (2019) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-019-00466-0 · Cited by 27
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Parent autonomy support as moderator: Testing the expanded perfectionism social disconnection model
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Nonergodicity in protective factors of resilience in athletes.
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Adolescent athletes and suicide: A model for treatment and prevention
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Fabio, A. D., Saklofske, D. H., Gori, A., & Svicher, A. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111839 · Cited by 21
Perfectionism and Academic Emotions of Gifted Adolescent Girls
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“Except for the academically gifted population, most studies involved high proportion of female participants of the general population (see Stoeber & Otto, 2006 for review).”
BackgroundInfluentialDamian, L. E., Negru‐Subtirica, O., Pop, E. I., & Băban, A. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24699-4_13 · Cited by 22
Adult Attachment, Multidimensional Perfectionism, and the Alliances Among Counselor Supervisees
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Perceived Perfectionism from God Scale: Development and Initial Evidence
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“These findings correspond with the literature supporting the multidimensionality of perfectionism (Stoeber and Otto 2006).”
BackgroundResultSirois, F. M., Toussaint, L. L., Hirsch, J. K., Kohls, N., Weber, A., & Offenbächer, M. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.08.005 · Cited by 20
Perfeccionismo interpersonal, miedo a fallar, y afectos en el deporte
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“Factor analytic studies have determined there are similarities between these models and that these similarities can be captured by two higher-order dimensions of perfectionism (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
BackgroundPerfectionism and fatigue in multiple sclerosis
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Perfectionism, negative motives for drinking, and alcohol-related problems: A 21-day diary study
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A meta-analysis of parental multidimensional perfectionism and child psychological outcomes
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Metadata
- Authors
- Stoeber, J., & Otto, K.
- Affiliations
- University of Kent (GB)
- Leipzig University (DE)
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2006-11
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 295-319
- ISSN
- 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7957
- OpenAlex
- W2144974643
- Semantic Scholar
- 785b3aa20a9b918778d9507b067697b21b6ae6a4
- Cited by
- 1,779
- References
- 122
- Citations by year
- 2026: 125 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 118 · 2023: 114 · 2022: 127 · 2021: 123 · 2020: 114 · 2019: 101 · 2018: 86 · 2017: 107 · 2016: 105 · 2015: 103 · 2014: 98 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 70
- FWCI
- 25.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) (acceptedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders
- Keywords
- positive perfectionism, neurotic perfectionism, perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, self-oriented perfectionism
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Attitude, Humans, Personality, Social Perception
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