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Positive Conceptions of Perfectionism: Approaches, Evidence, Challenges
Abstract
Almost 30 years ago, Hamachek (1978) suggested that 2 forms of perfectionism be distinguished, a positive form labeled "normal perfectionism" and a negative form labeled "neurotic perfectionism." Focusing on the positive, we present an overview of the different empirical conceptions of the 2 forms of perfectionism and a common framework for the 2 basic approaches: the dimensional approach differentiating 2 dimensions of perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns) and the group-based approach differentiating 2 groups of perfectionists (healthy perfectionists and unhealthy perfectionists). Moreover, we review the evidence demonstrating that (a) perfectionistic strivings are associated with positive characteristics and (b) healthy perfectionists show higher levels of positive characteristics compared to unhealthy perfectionists and nonperfectionists. Although questions on core facets, positive effects, and developmental antecedents of positive forms of perfectionism remain, our findings suggest that self-oriented perfectionistic strivings are positive, if perfectionists are not overly concerned about mistakes and negative evaluations by others.
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“We include tests using semi-partial correlations as well as raw correlations in light of recent evidence indicating that the associations between different dimensions of perfectionism and various outcomes differ depending on whether the raw or the semi-partial correlation is used (A. P. Hill & Curran, 2015; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Stoeber & Otto, 2006
In the citing paper
“This is a particularly salient issue when examining correlates and outcomes of perfectionistic strivings in which raw correlations often illustrate mixed findings whereas semi-partial correlations often reveal relatively more positive aspects of perfectionistic strivings (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Stoeber & Otto, 2006
In the citing paper
“These differing findings are likely due to the often considerable amount of overlapping variance between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns that is accounted for when using semi-partial correlations, but is left unattended when using raw correlations (Enns & Cox, 2002; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Stoeber & Otto, 2006
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“…et al. 1993; Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010) and on the other hand, the maladaptive evaluation concerns dimension (also called, perfectionistic concerns, Stoeber & Otto, 2006, evaluative concerns perfectionism, Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010) is a struggle for perfection, perceived as imposed by others,…”
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“The 19 items of the APS-R relating to high standards and discrepancy are sufficient, as are the 16 items of the FMPS relating to personal standards and concern over mistakes.”
ResultInfluentialHerrera, D., Matos, L., Gargurevich, R., Lira, B., & Valenzuela, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.623312 · Cited by 44
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“These findings might suggest perfectionistic strivings are less strongly related to agency; this makes sense, given research suggesting perfectionistic strivings predict different outcomes than perfectionistic concerns (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
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“Rice and Ashby (2007) replicated and extended several past studies by showing that maladaptive perfectionists could be reliably identified by elevated scores on High Standards and Discrepancy subscales, whereas adaptive perfectionists could be identified on the basis of comparably elevated High Standards scores and co…”
BackgroundInfluentialAffect variation across days of the week: influences of perfectionism and academic motivation
Harvey, B., Milyavskaya, M., Hope, N. H., Powers, T. A., Saffran, M., & Koestner, R. (2015) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-015-9480-3 · Cited by 40
Wang, K. T. (2011) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207594.2011.626050 · Cited by 38
“These two distinct aspects have been identified through factor analytic studies (see Stoeber & Otto, 2006 , for a review).”
Background“If Only I Had Done Better”: Perfectionism and the Functionality of Counterfactual Thinking
Sirois, F. M., Monforton, J., & Simpson, M. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167210387614 · Cited by 47
Fearn, M., Marino, C., Spada, M. M., & Kolubinski, D. C. (2021) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-021-00404-4 · Cited by 48
Piko, B. F., Müller, V., Kiss, H., & Mellor, D. J. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.104771 · Cited by 61
Multidimensional Sexual Perfectionism
Stoeber, J., Harvey, L. N., Almeida, I., & Lyons, E. (2013) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0135-8 · Cited by 44
“…unique relationships these forms have with positive and negative characteristics, processes, and outcomes (Hill, Huelsman, & Araujo, 2010; Stoeber & Otto, 2006), we expected the pattern of relationships to be more differentiated when the overlap between the four forms of sexual perfectionism was…”
BackgroundSelf-citationPerfectionism and Chinese Gifted Learners
Fong, R. W., & Yuen, M. (2014) · Roeper Review · doi:10.1080/02783193.2014.884202 · Cited by 38
Dunkley, D. M., Solomon‐Krakus, S., & Moroz, M. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-18582-8_7 · Cited by 38
Multidimensional perfectionism, depression, and anxiety: Tests of a social support mediation model
Gnilka, P. B., & Broda, M. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.11.031 · Cited by 37
Levine, S. L., Milyavskaya, M., & Zuroff, D. C. (2019) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702619865966 · Cited by 37
Overparenting and Perfectionistic Concerns Predict Academic Entitlement in Young Adults
Fletcher, K. L., Pierson, E. E., Neumeister, K. L. S., & Finch, W. H. (2019) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01663-7 · Cited by 38
Howell, J. A., Anderson, R., Egan, S. J., & McEvoy, P. M. (2020) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2020.1790645 · Cited by 40
“These findings challenge the clear cut distinction between perfectionistic concerns and strivings previously presented (e.g., Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodChang, E. C., Lin, N. J., Herringshaw, A. J., Sanna, L. J., Fabian, C. G., Perera, M. J., & Marchenko, V. V. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.027 · Cited by 41
Cultural Validity of Perfectionism Among Indian Students
Wang, K. T., Puri, R., Slaney, R. B., Methikalam, B., & Chadha, N. K. (2011) · Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development · doi:10.1177/0748175611423109 · Cited by 37
“These quantitative and qualitative findings not only provided support for the relevance of perfectionism among Indian students but were also consistent with a view of perfectionism as having both positive and negative components (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
BackgroundResultWitcher, L. A., Alexander, E. S., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Collins, K. M. T., & Witcher, A. E. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.04.016 · Cited by 36
Taylor, J. J. N., Papay, K., Webb, J. B., & Reeve, C. L. L. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.006 · Cited by 38
Self-Regulation of Slippery Deadlines: The Role of Procrastination in Work Performance
Steel, P., Taras, D., Ponak, A., & Kammeyer-Mueller, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.783789 · Cited by 49
Metadata
- Authors
- Stoeber, J., & Otto, K.
- Affiliations
- University of Kent (GB)
- Leipzig University (DE)
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2006-11
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 295-319
- ISSN
- 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7957
- OpenAlex
- W2144974643
- Semantic Scholar
- 785b3aa20a9b918778d9507b067697b21b6ae6a4
- Cited by
- 1,779
- References
- 122
- Citations by year
- 2026: 125 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 118 · 2023: 114 · 2022: 127 · 2021: 123 · 2020: 114 · 2019: 101 · 2018: 86 · 2017: 107 · 2016: 105 · 2015: 103 · 2014: 98 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 70
- FWCI
- 25.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) (acceptedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders
- Keywords
- positive perfectionism, neurotic perfectionism, perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, self-oriented perfectionism
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Attitude, Humans, Personality, Social Perception
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