Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology.
Abstract
This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology. We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment.
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The internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) of the HMPS in this study was 0.86.
“In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) was 0.86 for the overall scale.”
From Schema-Informed Digital Mental Health Intervention for Maladaptive Cognitive-Emotional Patterns: Randomized Controlled Trial (2025) · cites this paper as [19]
According to the multidimensional view of perfectionism, two higher-order dimensions of trait perfectionism are commonly identified from the most frequently used and well-validated measures in the field.
“According to the multidimensional view of perfectionism, two higher-order dimensions of trait perfectionism are commonly identified from the most frequently used and well-validated measures in the field”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
The MPS-HF and the APSR, revised, each assesses perfectionistic concerns with one subscale: socially-prescribed perfectionism (SPP) for the MPS-HF, and discrepancy for the APSR.
“In contrast, the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001), revised, each assesses perfectionistic concerns with one subscale, socially-prescribed perfectionism (SPP) for the MPS-HF, and discrepancy, for the APSR.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
Hewitt and Flett (1991) along with Hewitt, Flett, Besser, Sherry, and McGee (2003) have provided a strong theoretical foundation and direct empirical evidence to support a multidimensional conceptualization of perfectionism that includes both intra and interpersonal dimensions.
“Indeed, Hewitt and Flett (1991) along with Hewitt, Flett, Besser, Sherry, and McGee (2003) have provided a strong theoretical foundation and direct empirical evidence to support a multidimensional conceptualization of perfectionism that includes both intra and interpersonal dimensions of perfectionism.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Hewitt and Flett (1991)
Studies using the discrepancy subscale of the APSR demonstrated effects with perfectionistic concerns that were almost twice the magnitude of those found with the socially prescribed perfectionism subscale of the MPS-HF.
“with studies using the discrepancy subscale of the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001) demonstrating effects that were almost twice the magnitude of those found with the socially prescribed perfectionism subscale of the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991)”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
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High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success
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“The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991) is a 45-item scale that assesses three dimensions of perfectionism: SelfOriented perfectionism (e.g., ‘‘When I’m working on something, I cannot relax until it is perfect’’), Socially Prescribed perfectionism (e.g., ‘‘I feel that…”
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“This changed at beginning of the 1990’s, when two research groups independently demonstrated that perfectionism is multidimensional in nature, and provided perfectionism research with two multidimensional scales to capture the construct in all its facets (Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
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The Revised Almost Perfect Scale
Slaney, R. B., Rice, K. G., Mobley, M., Trippi, J., & Ashby, J. S. (2001) · Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development · doi:10.1080/07481756.2002.12069030 · Cited by 1,087 · see citing works
“, Hollender, 1965; Pacht, 1984) and, logically enough, have significantly influenced attempts to develop empirical measures of perfectionism. For example, Burns's (1980) Perfectionism Scale used items measuring high personal standards and was based on a previous scale that measured "a number of self-defeating attitude…”
MethodClinical perfectionism: A cognitive behavioural analysis
Shafran, R., Cooper, Z., & Fairburn, C. G. (2002) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00059-6 · Cited by 984 · see citing works
Perfectionism as a transdiagnostic process: A clinical review
Egan, S. J., Wade, T. D., & Shafran, R. (2011) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.009 · Cited by 961 · see citing works
“There is also evidence when maladaptive components of perfectionism on the FMPS and HMPS are combined (i.e., sociallyprescribed perfectionism, CM, DA, PE, PC) that this composite score remains unchanged from pre- to post-treatment of depression (Cox & Enns, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPersonality and eating disorders: A decade in review
Cassin, S. E., & von Ranson, K. M. (2005) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.04.012 · Cited by 832 · see citing works
Perfectionism: Theory, research, and treatment.
(2002) · doi:10.1037/10458-000 · Cited by 791 · see citing works
Perfectionism is increasing over time: A meta-analysis of birth cohort differences from 1989 to 2016
Curran, T., & Hill, A. P. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000138 · Cited by 780 · see citing works
The destructiveness of perfectionism: implications for the treatment of depression.
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Dunkley, D. M., Zuroff, D. C., & Blankstein, K. R. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.234 · Cited by 662 · see citing works
“PS perfectionism was indicated by MPS self-oriented perfectionism (15 items; e.g., " I set very high standards for myself " ) and FMPS personal standards (7 items; e.g., " If I do not set the highest standards for myself, I am likely to end up a second-rate person " ), as in Dunkley et al. (2000).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialParental Burnout and Child Maltreatment During the COVID-19 Pandemic
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“…be doing and achieving as parents; while socially-prescribed perfectionism refers to parents’ perceptions of others’ expectations for them, particularly their perceptions that others judge their parenting negatively, thinking they are not good enough or not doing enough (Hewitt and Flett 1991).”
BackgroundIs Perfectionism Good, Bad, or Both? Examining Models of the Perfectionism Construct
Bieling, P. J., Israeli, A. L., & Antony, M. M. (2004) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(03)00235-6 · Cited by 630 · see citing works
“Certainly, the deleterious consequences of perfectionism have been emphasized since the construct was first examined carefully (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hamachek, 1978; Hewitt & Flett, 1991a, 1991b; Hollender, 1965; Pacht, 1984).”
BackgroundMethodPsychopathology Associated With Suicidal Ideation and Attempts Among Children and Adolescents
GOULD, M. S., KING, R., GREENWALD, S., FISHER, P., SCHWAB-STONE, M., KRAMER, R., FLISHER, A. J., GOODMAN, S., CANINO, G., & SHAFFER, D. (1998) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-199809000-00011 · Cited by 600 · see citing works
Frost, R. O., & Gross, R. C. (1993) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(93)90094-b · Cited by 605 · see citing works
The Relationship between Perfectionism and Psychopathology: A Meta-analysis
Limburg, K., Watson, H. J., Hagger, M. S., & Egan, S. J. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22435 · Cited by 602 · see citing works
“…tendency of higher scores on HMPS-self-oriented perfectionism compared to FMPS-personal standards was revealed, consistent with research reporting high scores on HMPS-self-oriented perfectionism in depression (Hewitt & Flett, 1991a) and low scores on FMPS-personal standards (Lombardo et al., 2013).”
InfluentialTowards an integrated motivational–volitional model of suicidal behaviour
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Perfectionism and eating disorders: Current status and future directions
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“In the early 1990's, multidimensional conceptualizations of perfectionism led to the development of new instruments, including the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Frost MPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990) and the Hewitt and Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt and Flett MPS; Hewit…”
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“Facets of Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Just as it has been shown that trait perfectionism is multidimensional (Hewitt & Flett, 1991b), we propose different facets of the perfectionistic self-presentation construct.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationPositive and negative perfectionism
Terry-Short, L. A., Owens, R. G., Slade, P. D., & Dewey, M. E. (1995) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)00192-u · Cited by 514 · see citing works
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“Moreover, perfectionists often put great importance on the evaluation of others (Frost et al, 1990 ; Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ).”
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ANSHEL, M. H. (2000) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854800027003006 · Cited by 459 · see citing works
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Self-citationA Dual Process Model of Perfectionism Based on Reinforcement Theory
Slade, P. D., & Owens, R. G. (1998) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/01454455980223010 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Hewitt, P., Flett, G., & Mosher, S. (1992) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/bf00962631 · Cited by 437 · see citing works
“This measure has been used extensively in research on levels of depression in general clinical samples (e.g., Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
MethodSelf-citationCompulsive exercise and eating disorders
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“Despite the preceding evidence, understanding of the relationship between perfectionism and compulsive exercise is impaired by the use of disparate conceptualizations of perfectionism (e.g., Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
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Buhr, K., & Dugas, M. J. (2006) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2004.12.004 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
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“MPS = The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt & Flett, 1991a).”
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For Fun, Love, or Money: What Drives Workaholic, Engaged, and Burned‐Out Employees at Work?
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“In addition, workaholism is positively linked to socially prescribed perfectionism (Taris, Van Beek, & Schaufeli, 2010), that is, people’s beliefs that significant others hold high standards for them and that they only will be accepted if they meet these standards (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
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“Our Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ) assesses three dimensions of the construct—self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., excessive striving and demanding absolute perfection from the self), other-oriented perfectionism (i.e., demanding perfection from other people), and socially prescribed p…”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citationStoeber, J., & Stoeber, F. S. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.12.006 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
Antony, M. M., Purdon, C. L., Huta, V., & Swinson, R. P. (1998) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(98)00083-7 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
“Hewitt and Flett (1991a) also titled their scale the multidimensional perfectionism scale (MPS-H).”
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Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2006) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445506288026 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
“…phenomena as depression, suicide, anxiety, and personality disorders (see Flett, Greene, & Hewitt, 2004; Flett, Hewitt, Blankstein, & Gray, 1998; Hewitt & Flett, 1991a, 1991b; Hewitt, Flett, & Turnbull-Donovan, 1992; Hewitt, Flett, & Weber, 1994; Hewitt, Newton, Flett, & Callander, 1997;…”
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Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., & Ediger, E. (1995) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/1098-108x(199512)18:4 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Self-citationTesting a 2×2 model of dispositional perfectionism
Gaudreau, P., & Thompson, A. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.031 · Cited by 319 · see citing works
“Several facets of perfectionism can be regrouped in two broader dimensions that can be distinguished on the basis of their origin (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and cognitive manifestations (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990).”
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Perfectionism in children: associations with depression, anxiety, and anger
Hewitt, P. L., Caelian, C., Flett, G. L., Sherry, S., Collins, L., & Flynn, C. (2002) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00109-x · Cited by 309 · see citing works
“Modeled after the adult version (MPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991b), the CAPS measures self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism, but in terms relevant to children.”
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“Whereas early conceptualizations suggested perfectionism to be a unidimensional concept (Burns, 1980), recent views have alternatively stressed that perfectionism is multidimensional i nature (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Terry-Short, Owens, Slade, & Dewey, 1995).”
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“Perfectionists have a harsh way of relating to a self they often find deficient (e.g., self-attack; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationYperen, N. W. V. (2006) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167206292093 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
“Perfectionism. With the advent of multidimensional conceptualizations of perfectionism (Flett & Hewitt, 2002), evidence has emerged indicating that self-oriented perfectionism is positively related to self-efficacy and positive affect and negatively with procrastination, whereas socially prescribed perfectionism is ge…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialStability, change, and implications of students’ motivation profiles: A latent transition analysis
Gillet, N., Morin, A. J. S., & Reeve, J. (2017) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.08.006 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
“The short version of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Cox, Enns, & Clara, 2002; Hewitt & Flett, 1991) was used to assess participants’ levels of self-oriented perfectionism (5 items; e.g., “I am perfectionistic in setting my goals”; Time 1 α = .82; Time 2 α = .85).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSoenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Luyten, P., Duriez, B., & Goossens, L. (2004) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.05.008 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
“In line with this theorizing, research confirmed the idea that perfectionism is a multidimensional construct with both adaptive and maladaptive aspects (Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1990, 1991).”
Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
The Relations between Perfectionism and Suicidality: A Systematic Review
O'Connor, R. C. (2007) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1521/suli.2007.37.6.698 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Inhibited expression of negative emotions and interpersonal orientation in anorexia nervosa
Geller, J., Cockell, S. J., Hewitt, P. L., Goldner, E. M., & Flett, G. L. (2000) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/1098-108x(200007)28:1 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Self-citationDunkley, D. M., Blankstein, K. R., Masheb, R. M., & Grilo, C. M. (2006) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2004.12.004 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Perfectionism, impostor phenomenon, and mental health in medicine: a literature review
Thomas, M., & Bigatti, S. M. (2020) · International Journal of Medical Education · doi:10.5116/ijme.5f54.c8f8 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
The development of perfectionism: A study of daughters and their parents
Frost, R. O., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1991) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf01175730 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
“Consistent with this notion, Hewitt and Flett (1990b) have suggested a”
Perfectionism, control, and components of performance anxiety in professional artists
Mor, S., Day, H., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (1995) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf02229695 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Self-citationO’Connor, R. C., Rasmussen, S. A., & Hawton, K. (2009) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.09.008 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
“Although there is a large literature in adults (Enns & Cox, 2002; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Shafran & Mansell, 2001), comparatively few studies have investigated the relationship between perfectionism and psychological health in children and adolescents fax: þ44 (0)1786 467641.”
BackgroundMethodEnns, M. W., Cox, B. J., & Clara, I. P. (2002) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00202-1 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
The Short Form of the Revised Almost Perfect Scale
Rice, K. G., Richardson, C. M. E., & Tueller, S. (2013) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.838172 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
“Finally, the third criterion variable was depression, given the extensive attention depression has received in studies of perfectionism (e.g., Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Rice & Ashby, 2007; Wei, Heppner, Russell, & Young, 2006).”
BackgroundGotwals, J. K., Stoeber, J., Dunn, J. G. H., & Stoll, O. (2012) · Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/a0030288 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Perfectionism in young musicians: Relations with motivation, effort, achievement, and distress
Stoeber, J., & Eismann, U. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.06.036 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
“Moreover, perfectionists often put great importance on the evaluation of others (Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
InfluentialDunkley, D. M., & Blankstein, K. R. (2000) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1005543529245 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
“The distinction between perfectionism dimensions can be made by consideration of research on constructs such as socially prescribed perfectionism ( Hewitt & Flett, 1991a ), self-criticism (Blatt, 1974), and autonomy (Beck, 1983) on one hand, and constructs such as self-oriented perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991a) on…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialNarcissistic Personality Disorder: Facing DSM-V
Ronningstam, E. (2009) · Psychiatric Annals · doi:10.3928/00485713-20090301-09 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Mills, J. S., & Blankstein, K. R. (2000) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00003-9 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Self-harm in adolescents: self-report survey in schools in Scotland
O’Connor, R. C., Rasmussen, S. A., Miles, J., & Hawton, K. E. (2008) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.107.047704 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
AVPR1a and SLC6A4 Gene Polymorphisms Are Associated with Creative Dance Performance
Bachner‐Melman, R., Christian Dina, C., Zohar, A. H., Constantini, N., Lerer, E., Hoch, S., Sella, S., Nemanov, L., Gritsenko, I., Lichtenberg, P., et al. (2005) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0010042 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
“Perfectionism (CAPS) [74] 39.”
Nixdorf, I., Frank, R., & Beckmann, J. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00893 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Nathanson, C., Paulhus, D. L., & Williams, K. M. (2005) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.03.001 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
“Three types of perfectionism have been distinguished: self-oriented, socially-prescribed, and other-oriented ( Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ).”
BackgroundClusters of Perfectionists: Two Studies of Emotional Adjustment and Academic Achievement
Rice, K. G., & Slaney, R. B. (2002) · Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development · doi:10.1080/07481756.2002.12069046 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Turner, M. J. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01423 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
“…performance in social situations (e.g., speaking; Nicastro et al., 1999), procrastination (Beswick et al., 1988; Bridges and Roig, 1997), alcohol abuse (Hewitt and Flett, 1991), interpersonal issues (Haring et al., 2003), suicide (Blatt, 1995), and reduced task performance (Frost and Marten, 1990).”
BackgroundStrategic Management of Expectations: The Role of Disconfirmation Sensitivity and Perfectionism
Kopalle, P. K., & Lehmann, D. R. (2001) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-88079-7_18 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Can psychological interventions reduce perfectionism? A systematic review and meta-analysis
Lloyd, S., Schmidt, U., Khondoker, M., & Tchanturia, K. (2015) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465814000162 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
“719 Hewitt and Flett Multi-Dimensional Perfectionism Scale (HMPS; Hewitt and Flett, 1991) assesses three dimensions of perfectionism.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPerfectionism, life events, and depressive symptoms: A test of a diathesis-stress model
Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Blankstein, K. R., & Mosher, S. W. (1995) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/bf02686885 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Child–Adolescent Perfectionism Scale
Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Avi Besser, A., Su, C., Vaillancourt, T., Boucher, D., Munro, Y., Davidson, L. A., & Gale, O. (2016) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282916651381 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
“One hypothesized distinction between socially prescribed and selforiented perfectionism is their links with motivational orientations (see Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationHill, A. P., Hall, H., Appleton, P. R., & Kozub, S. A. (2007) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.09.004 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
“…Flett, 1993; Hewitt, Flett, & Ediger, 1996; Joiner & Schmidt, 1995), self-criticism and self-blame, as well as a tendency to overgeneralise failure (Hewitt and Flett, 1991), all demonstrate the disposition’s propensity to generate and intensify the experience of stress (Dunkley & Blankstein,…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA Meta-Analysis of Perfectionism and Academic Achievement
Madigan, D. J. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09484-2 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
“Self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism were measured using the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt and Flett 1991), Short Form of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Cox et al. 2002) and the Child and Adolescent Perfectionism Scale (Flett et al. 2001) k =…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSorkkila, M., & Aunola, K. (2019) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01607-1 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Perfectionism Cognitions, Rumination, and Psychological Distress
Flett, G. L., Madorsky, D., Hewitt, P. L., & Heisel, M. J. (2002) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1023/a:1015128904007 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
“Both the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory and the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale ( Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ) were included in this research so that we could examine whether the ruminative orientation is specific to the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, or is associated more generally with the trait dimensions o…”
MethodSelf-citationPerfectionism Is Multidimensional: a reply to Shafran, Cooper and Fairburn (2002)
Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., Besser, A., Sherry, S. B., & McGee, B. (2003) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(03)00021-4 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
“A structural equation analysis shows that when the correlations among the three MPS dimensions are taken into account, only socially prescribed perfectionism continues to have a link with the Fear of Failure construct, and Fear of Failure mediates the link between socially prescribed perfectionism and depression (see…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationThe Big Three Perfectionism Scale
Smith, M. M., Saklofske, D. H., Stoeber, J., & Sherry, S. (2016) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282916651539 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
“…reduce the possibility of omitting core content, and afford greater reliability and precision in assessment (Comrey, 1988; Self-oriented perfectionism refers to the belief that striving for perfection, as well as being perfect, are important (Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Stoeber & Childs, 2010).”
InfluentialPerfectionism and the Five-Factor Model of Personality: A Meta-Analytic Review
Smith, M. M., Sherry, S., Vidovic, V., Saklofske, D. H., Stoeber, J., & Benoit, A. A. (2019) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868318814973 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
“The most commonly studied dimensions of perfectionism derive from two scales, both titled the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale: the Frost FMPS (Frost et al., 1990) and the Hewitt and Flett HFMPS (HFMPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundBardone‐Cone, A. M., & Cass, K. M. (2007) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.20396 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Dimensions of Perfectionism, Unconditional Self-Acceptance, and Depression
Flett, G. L., Besser, A., Davis, R. A., & Hewitt, P. L. (2003) · Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1023/a:1025051431957 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
“In summary, we found that all three trait dimensions of perfectionism assessed by the MPS were associated with relatively low levels of unconditional self-acceptance.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationPerfectionists: Study of a Criterion Group
Slaney, R. B., & Ashby, J. S. (1996) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1996.tb01885.x · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Smith, M. M., Sherry, S., Rnic, K., Saklofske, D. H., Enns, M. W., & Gralnick, T. M. (2016) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2053 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
“Perfectionistic strivings encompass a constellation of traits, including self-oriented perfectionism (i.e. demanding perfection of oneself; Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and personal standards (i.e. setting unreasonably high personal standards and goals; Frost et al., 1990).”
BackgroundResultStoeber, J., Feast, A. R., & Hayward, J. A. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.04.014 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Soenens, B., Elliot, A. J., Goossens, L., Vansteenkiste, M., Luyten, P., & Duriez, B. (2005) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/0893-3200.19.3.358 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
“In recent research, perfectionism is conceptualized as a multidimensional personality trait, comprising both adaptive and maladaptive components (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundInfluential
- Authors
- Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1991
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 456-470
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4239426612
- Cited by
- 3,378
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 185 · 2025: 213 · 2024: 153 · 2023: 155 · 2022: 154 · 2021: 189 · 2020: 181 · 2019: 153 · 2018: 166 · 2017: 158 · 2016: 162 · 2015: 164 · 2014: 158 · 2013: 102 · 2012: 140
- FWCI
- 18.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- perfectionism, self-perfectionism, social perfectionism, psychopathology, conceptualization, assessment, personality traits
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Male, Personality Assessment, Personality Development, Personality Disorders, Personality Tests, Risk Factors, Self Concept, Social Adjustment, Social Desirability, Type A Personality
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