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Positive Conceptions of Perfectionism: Approaches, Evidence, Challenges
Abstract
Almost 30 years ago, Hamachek (1978) suggested that 2 forms of perfectionism be distinguished, a positive form labeled "normal perfectionism" and a negative form labeled "neurotic perfectionism." Focusing on the positive, we present an overview of the different empirical conceptions of the 2 forms of perfectionism and a common framework for the 2 basic approaches: the dimensional approach differentiating 2 dimensions of perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns) and the group-based approach differentiating 2 groups of perfectionists (healthy perfectionists and unhealthy perfectionists). Moreover, we review the evidence demonstrating that (a) perfectionistic strivings are associated with positive characteristics and (b) healthy perfectionists show higher levels of positive characteristics compared to unhealthy perfectionists and nonperfectionists. Although questions on core facets, positive effects, and developmental antecedents of positive forms of perfectionism remain, our findings suggest that self-oriented perfectionistic strivings are positive, if perfectionists are not overly concerned about mistakes and negative evaluations by others.
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“We include tests using semi-partial correlations as well as raw correlations in light of recent evidence indicating that the associations between different dimensions of perfectionism and various outcomes differ depending on whether the raw or the semi-partial correlation is used (A. P. Hill & Curran, 2015; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Stoeber & Otto, 2006
In the citing paper
“This is a particularly salient issue when examining correlates and outcomes of perfectionistic strivings in which raw correlations often illustrate mixed findings whereas semi-partial correlations often reveal relatively more positive aspects of perfectionistic strivings (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Stoeber & Otto, 2006
In the citing paper
“These differing findings are likely due to the often considerable amount of overlapping variance between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns that is accounted for when using semi-partial correlations, but is left unattended when using raw correlations (Enns & Cox, 2002; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Stoeber & Otto, 2006
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Self-citationMeasuring Perfectionism in Sport, Dance, and Exercise: Review, Critique, Recommendations
Stoeber, J., & Madigan, D. J. (2016) · Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) · doi:10.4324/9781315661100-9 · Cited by 66
“…measures Sport-MPS, Sport-MPS 2 Dunn et al. (2002); Gotwals et al. (2009) Personal Standards Concern over Mistakes PSS Anshel & Eom (2003) Personal Standards Concern over Mistakes MIPS Stöber et al. (2004); Stoeber et al. (2006) Striving for Perfection Negative Reactions to Imperfection Note.”
BackgroundSelf-citationHill, A. P., Witcher, C. S. G., Gotwals, J. K., & Leyland, A. (2015) · Sport Exercise and Performance Psychology · doi:10.1037/spy0000041 · Cited by 77
Chen, L. H., Kee, Y. H., & Tsai, Y. (2008) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-008-9277-9 · Cited by 72
“Results also correspond to Stoeber and his colleagues’ research (Stoeber and Eismann 2007; Stoeber et al. 2007; Stoeber and Kersting 2007; Stoeber and Otto 2006; Stoeber et al. 2007; Stoeber and Rambow 2007; Stoeber and Rennert 2008; Stoeber et al. 2008; Stoll et al. 2008), which consistently demonstrates the need to…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialNiemivirta, M., Pulkka, A., Tapola, A., & Tuominen, H. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316823279.025 · Cited by 67
Brand, M., & Altstötter–Gleich, C. (2008) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.04.003 · Cited by 64
Hill, A. P., Hall, H., Appleton, P. R., & Murray, J. J. (2010) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.24.1.16 · Cited by 64
Perfectionistic Profiles Among Elite Athletes and Differences in Their Motivational Orientations
Gucciardi, D. F., Mahoney, J. W., Jalleh, G., Donovan, R. J., & Parkes, J. F. (2012) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.34.2.159 · Cited by 71
“…by personal standards and concerns over mistakes), provided further support for the idea that having high standards for performance may not problematic unless combined with indicators of overly critical self-evaluations of behavior of performance (Frost et al., 1990; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe relationships between perfectionism, pathological worry and generalised anxiety disorder
Handley, A. K., Egan, S. J., Kane, R. T., & Rees, C. S. (2014) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-14-98 · Cited by 77
“Demonstrating a significant relationship between Personal Standards and anxiety symptomatology in individuals with elevated perfectionism and GAD suggests that Personal Standards is not a purely positive aspect of perfectionism as has been argued in previous research [26].”
BackgroundResultDunkley, D. M., & Kyparissis, A. (2008) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.11.022 · Cited by 73
Smith, M. M., Sherry, S., Vidovic, V., Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (2020) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2020.103954 · Cited by 65
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“Two major approaches have been adopted to identify these two forms of perfectionism (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialPeters, M., & King, J. (2012) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.e1674 · Cited by 62
Stoeber, J., Kobori, O., & Tanno, Y. (2009) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223890903379159 · Cited by 71
“E Personal Standards captures positive aspects of perfectionism (Frost et al., 1993; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationDevelopmental Trajectories of Maladaptive Perfectionism in Middle Childhood
Hong, R. Y., Lee, S. S. M., Chng, R. Y., Zhou, Y., Tsai, F., & Tan, S. H. (2017) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12249 · Cited by 62
A randomized controlled trial of acceptance and commitment therapy for clinical perfectionism
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Moroz, M., & Dunkley, D. M. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.044 · Cited by 59
Multidimensional perfectionism and the DSM-5 personality traits
Stoeber, J. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.031 · Cited by 69
Self-citationKopala‐Sibley, D. C., & Zuroff, D. C. (2014) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/gpr0000013 · Cited by 62
“…Flett, 1991), more recent research explicitly differentiates maladaptive, self-critical perfectionism, from a more adaptive personal standards perfectionism (Dunkley, Zuroff et al., 2006; Dunkley, Blankstein et al., 2006; Powers, Koestner, Zuroff, Milyavskaya, & Gorin, 2011; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
BackgroundLee, Y. J., & Anderman, E. M. (2019) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2019.101813 · Cited by 64
Stoeber, J., & Kersting, M. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.012 · Cited by 62
“Second, the findings provide further support for the position that perfectionistic strivings can be regarded as a positive characteristic, as they show reliable and consistent relationships with positive characteristics and adaptive outcomes (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
InfluentialSelf-citationPerfectionism and training distress in junior athletes: a longitudinal investigation
Madigan, D. J., Stoeber, J., & Passfield, L. (2016) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2016.1172726 · Cited by 67
“…striving for perfection, and perfectionistic concerns capturing concerns about making mistakes, feelings of discrepancy between one’s standards and performance, and fears of negative evaluation and rejection by others if one fails to be perfect (see Stoeber & Otto, 2006, for a review).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMacedo, A., Soares, M. J., Amaral, A., Nogueira, V., Madeira, N., Roque, C., Marques, M., Maia, B., Bos, S., Valente, J., et al. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.08.024 · Cited by 59
Gustafsson, H., Madigan, D. J., & Lundkvist, E. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-49322-9_24 · Cited by 75
“…striving for perfection and (b) perfectionistic concerns reflecting concerns about making mistakes, feelings of discrepancy between one’s standards and performance, and fears of negative evaluation and rejection by others if one fails to be perfect (see Stoeber and Otto 2006, for a review).”
BackgroundBiased interpretation in perfectionism and its modification
Yiend, J., Savulich, G., Coughtrey, A., & Shafran, R. (2011) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2011.10.004 · Cited by 59
“Previous research, for example, has stressed the importance of distinguishing between the personal standards and evaluative concerns dimensions of perfectionism (e.g. Dunkley, Blankstein, Masheb, & Grilo, 2006; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
Developmental Trajectories of Maladaptive Perfectionism Among African American Adolescents
Herman, K. C., Wang, K., Trotter, R. H., Reinke, W. M., & Ialongo, N. S. (2013) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12078 · Cited by 60
“Over the past two decades, evidence has accumulated suggesting that perfectionism is a multidimensional construct (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
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“The two broad dimensions identified in these studies are perfectionistic striving and perfectionistic concerns (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).1 Perfectionistic striving primarily involves the setting of exacting and high standards for one’s self (Dunkley & Blankstein, 2000).”
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Arana, F., & Furlán, L. A. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.11.001 · Cited by 61
Curran, T., Hill, A. P., & Williams, L. J. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.12.035 · Cited by 70
Intellectual Giftedness and Multidimensional Perfectionism: a Meta-Analytic Review
Stricker, J., Buecker, S., Schneider, M., & Preckel, F. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09504-1 · Cited by 61
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Perfectionism and Peer Relations Among Children with Obsessive-compulsive Disorder
Ye, H. J., Rice, K. G., & Storch, E. A. (2008) · Child Psychiatry and Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-008-0098-5 · Cited by 56
“and coping [7, 6].”
Smith, M. M., Saklofske, D. H., Yan, G., & Sherry, S. B. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.006 · Cited by 57
Indirect Measurement of Perfectionism: Construct and Predictive Validity
Cuyper, K. D., Pieters, G., Claes, L., Vandromme, H., & Hermans, D. (2013) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2013.32.8.844 · Cited by 58
Callaghan, T., Greene, D., Shafran, R., Lunn, J., & Egan, S. J. (2023) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2023.2277121 · Cited by 77
“This follows given that there is a high degree of overlap between strivings and concerns (Smith & Saklofske, 2017; Stoeber & Otto, 2006; Stoeber et al., 2020).”
BackgroundWeight perception in female athletes: Associations with disordered eating correlates and behavior
Haase, A. M. (2010) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2010.09.004 · Cited by 57
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“While there is substantial evidence linking the positive striving dimension of perfectionism with positive adjustment (Stoeber and Otto, 2006), the maladaptive evaluative concerns aspect of perfectionism is of interest to clinicians given its association with psychopathology.”
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Kira, I. A., Shuwiekh, H., Rice, K., Al Ibraheem, B., & Aljakoub, J. (2017) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2017.1340163 · Cited by 56
“…(the discrepancy between authentic selfidentity and perceived identity in this case) was found to be associated with neuroticism, maladaptive coping, and negative affect as well as higher levels of psychological maladjustment and disorder (see Stoeber & Otto, 2006, for a comprehensive review).”
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“…or unrelated to negative outcomes (Frost et al., 1990; Dunkley et al., 2000; Enns et al., 2002; Bieling et al., 2004; Dunkley et al., 2006; Stoeber and Otto, 2006), whereas maladaptive perfectionism has been implicated in the development and maintenance of a wide range of symptoms and…”
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“In a meta-analysis of 15 studies that had used a dualist approach, Stoeber and Otto (2006) concluded that striving was a positive form of perfectionism.”
Kim, L. E., Chen, L., MacCann, C., Karlov, L., & Kleitman, S. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.01.033 · Cited by 57
Perfectionism in Sport and Dance: A Double-Edged Sword
Stoeber, J. (2014) · Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) · Cited by 55
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The 2×2 model of perfectionism: A critical comment and some suggestions
Stoeber, J. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.04.029 · Cited by 63
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“According to the two-factor theory of perfectionism (Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993; Stoeber & Otto, 2006; Yang & Shen, 2008), two broad factors of perfectionism can be differentiated: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns.”
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“For example, an inner striving to improve is considered an adaptive trait (Stoeber & Otto, 2006), but during periods of prolonged or excess pressure, an automatic tendency to “try harder” or “wishing things were different” could be the source of unnecessary energy expenditure.”
BackgroundThe Psychology of Perfectionism
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Self-citationPsychological Predictors for Depression and Burnout Among German Junior Elite Athletes
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Deuling, J. K., & Burns, L. R. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.05.013 · Cited by 63
Doctoral Student Perfectionism and Emotional Well-Being
Moate, R. M., Gnilka, P. B., West, E. M., & Rice, K. G. (2019) · Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development · doi:10.1080/07481756.2018.1547619 · Cited by 55
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“Maladaptive perfectionism is associated with unrealistic personal standards and criticism of mistakes, whereas adaptive perfectionism is associated with high standards and acceptance of mistakes or limitations (Stoeber and Otto 2006 ).”
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“The second dimension, perfectionistic strivings, involves ceaselessly striving toward excessively high, perfectionistic goals (Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
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Smith, M. M., Saklofske, D. H., & Nordstokke, D. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.12.013 · Cited by 52
Examining religious commitment, perfectionism, scrupulosity, and well-being among LDS individuals.
Allen, G. E. K., & Wang, K. T. (2014) · Psychology of Religion and Spirituality · doi:10.1037/a0035197 · Cited by 48
“The existence of perfectionism in diverse groups has been well documented over the years (Slaney, Mobley, Trippi, Ashby, & Johnson, 1996; Shafran & Mansell, 2001; Stoeber & Otto, 2006; Grzegorek, Slaney, Franze, & Rice, 2004; Rice & Slaney, 2002; Wang, 2010).”
Madigan, D. J., Stoeber, J., & Passfield, L. (2016) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.05.010 · Cited by 50
Self-citationMofield, E. L., Peters, M. P., & Chakraborti-Ghosh, S. (2016) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci6030021 · Cited by 51
“Concern over Mistakes, Doubt of Action, Parent Criticism, and Parental Expectations are associated with maladaptive outcomes and are often referred to as unhealthy dimensions [20,36].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDamian, L. E., Negru‐Subtirica, O., Stoeber, J., & Băban, A. (2016) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2016.1271877 · Cited by 48
“Moreover, it has shown that different dimensions of perfectionism form two higher-order dimensions: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (e.g., Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
BackgroundSelf-citationIntrapersonal Variables Associated with Academic Adjustment in United States College Students
Montgomery, S., Gregg, D. H., Somers, C. L., Pernice‐Duca, F., Hoffman, A. M., & Beeghly, M. (2017) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-016-9533-0 · Cited by 55
Otto, K., Geibel, H. V., & Kleszewski, E. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.657394 · Cited by 62
Self-citationPerfectionism in Academically Gifted Students: A Systematic Review
Grugan, M. C., Hill, A. P., Madigan, D. J., Donachie, T. C., Olsson, L. F., & Etherson, M. E. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09597-7 · Cited by 70
Exercise Dependence and Maladaptive Perfectionism: the Mediating Role of Basic Psychological Needs
Costa, S., Coppolino, P., & Oliva, P. (2015) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-015-9586-6 · Cited by 53
“Therefore, it is possible to identify two main dimensions of perfectionism: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (Stoeber and Otto 2006).”
BackgroundResultEmotional intelligence moderates perfectionism and test anxiety among Iranian students
Abdollahi, A., & Talib, M. A. (2015) · School Psychology International · doi:10.1177/0143034315603445 · Cited by 48
Rasch calibration of a unidimensional perfectionism inventory for sport
Anshel, M. H., Weatherby, N. L., Kang, M., & Watson, T. D. (2008) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.07.006 · Cited by 48
Hill, A. P., & Davis, P. (2014) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-014-9404-7 · Cited by 54
“These two dimensions have divergent effects across a wide range of outcomes (see Gotwals et al. 2012, and Stoeber and Otto 2006, for reviews).”
BackgroundDiscrepancies confer vulnerability to depressive symptoms: A three-wave longitudinal study.
Sherry, S., Mackinnon, S. P., Macneil, M. A., & Fitzpatrick, S. (2012) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0030439 · Cited by 52
Metadata
- Authors
- Stoeber, J., & Otto, K.
- Affiliations
- University of Kent (GB)
- Leipzig University (DE)
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2006-11
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 295-319
- ISSN
- 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7957
- OpenAlex
- W2144974643
- Semantic Scholar
- 785b3aa20a9b918778d9507b067697b21b6ae6a4
- Cited by
- 1,779
- References
- 122
- Citations by year
- 2026: 125 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 118 · 2023: 114 · 2022: 127 · 2021: 123 · 2020: 114 · 2019: 101 · 2018: 86 · 2017: 107 · 2016: 105 · 2015: 103 · 2014: 98 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 70
- FWCI
- 25.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) (acceptedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders
- Keywords
- positive perfectionism, neurotic perfectionism, perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, self-oriented perfectionism
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Attitude, Humans, Personality, Social Perception
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