When Suffering Begets Suffering: The Psychology of Competitive Victimhood Between Adversarial Groups in Violent Conflicts

Noor, Masi; Shnabel, Nurit; Halabi, Samer; Nadler, Arie

doi:10.1177/1088868312440048

Cited by 419Social and Intergroup PsychologyForgiveness and Related BehaviorsPolitical Conflict and Governance

When Suffering Begets Suffering: The Psychology of Competitive Victimhood Between Adversarial Groups in Violent Conflicts

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Noor, Masi, Shnabel, Nurit, Halabi, Samer, Nadler, Arie·2012·Personality and Social Psychology Review

DOI 10.1177/1088868312440048

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Abstract

Inter-group competitive victimhood (CV) describes the efforts of members of groups involved in violent conflicts to establish that their group has suffered more than their adversarial group. Such efforts contribute to conflicts' escalation and impede their peaceful resolution. CV stems from groups' general tendency to compete with each other, along with the deep sense of victimization resulting from conflicts. The authors point to biases that contribute to groups' engagement in CV, describe five dimensions of victimhood over which groups may compete, and contend that such competition serves various functions that contribute to the maintenance of conflicts. Drawing on the Needs-Based Model, they suggest that CV may reflect groups' motivations to restore power or moral acceptance. They then review evidence of the negative consequences of CV for inter-group forgiveness and suggest potential strategies to reduce CV. Finally, the authors discuss potential moderators and directions for future research.

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Groups in the gray zone may engage in competitive victimhood dynamics with other groups, demanding to be recognized as the veritable victim.
“These groups may also engage in competitive victimhood dynamics with other groups demanding to be recognized as the veritable victim (Noor et al., 2012).”
From Collective Trauma and the Social Construction of Meaning (2018) · cites this paper as Noor et al., 2012
Acknowledgment of in-group culpability creates dissonance between the motivation to believe that the group is good and its past misdeeds, and this dissonance can be resolved either by assuming a defensive representation of history that vindicates the group or by distancing from the group.
“Acknowledgment of in-group culpability creates dissonance between the motivation to believe that the group is good and its’ past misdeeds.”
From Collective Trauma and the Social Construction of Meaning (2018) · cites this paper as Noor et al., 2012

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Untitled work
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Social Comparison and Social Psychology
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Ongoing Victim Suffering Increases Prejudice: The Case of Secondary Anti-Semitism
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Monologic Results of Dialogue: Jewish-Palestinian Encounter Groups as Sites of Essentialization
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Trends and Causes of Armed Conflict
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Memory for intergroup apologies and its relationship with forgiveness
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The Relevance of Culture for the Study of Political Psychology and Ethnic Conflict
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Prosocial motivation and behavior in close relationships.
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Reconceptualizing relative deprivation in the context of dramatic social change: the challenge confronting the people of Kyrgyzstan
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Superordinate Categorization as a Moderator of Mutual Infrahumanization
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When groups are more competitive than individuals: The domain of the discontinuity effect.
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The politicizing of trauma: A case study of Sri Lanka.
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Psychological Bases of Extreme Policy Preferences
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A Tarnished Silver Lining: Victim Suffering and Support for Reparations
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When groups are more competitive than individuals: The domain of the discontinuity effect.
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Mergers and group status: the impact of high, low and equal group status on identification and satisfaction with a company merger, experienced controllability, group identity and group cohesion
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“You Should Know Better”: Expressions of Empathy and Disregard Among Victims of Massive Social Trauma
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What if Victims Read a Newspaper Report About Their Victimization?
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The Stasi: The East German Intelligence and Security Service
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Forgiveness and reparation in Chile: The role of cognitive and emotional intergroup antecedents.
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‘Ordinary People’ and ‘Death Work’: Palestinian Suicide Bombers as Victimizers and Victims
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Torture and judgments of guilt
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Conflict coverage and conflict escalation
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Collecting on Moral Debts: Reparations for the Holocaust and Pořajmos
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VICTIMHOOD, IDENTITY, AND AGENCY IN THE EARLY PHASE OF THE TROUBLES IN NORTHERN IRELAND
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Intergroup Identity Perceptions and their Implications for Intergroup Forgiveness
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Transforming Trauma in the Aftermath of Gross Human Rights Abuses: Making Public Spaces Intimate Through the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission
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The Influence of Inequality, Responsibility and Justifiability on Reports of Group-Based Guilt for Ingroup Privilege
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Balkan Holocausts?
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Hungering for Revenge: the Irish Famine, the Troubles and Shame-Rage Cycles, and their Role in Group Therapy in Northern Ireland
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Promoting Reconciliation After Genocide and Mass Killing in Rwanda—And Other Postconflict Settings: Understanding the Roots of Violence, Healing, Shared History, and General Principles
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The conflict in Northern Ireland
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Irish on the Inside: In Search of the Soul of Irish America
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The victim and the psychologist: Changing perceptions of Israeli holocaust survivors by the mental health community in the past 50 years.
Nadler, A. (2001) · History of Psychology · doi:10.1037//1093-4510.4.2.159 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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Promoting intergroup reconciliation in conflicts involving direct or structural violence: Implications of the needs-based model.
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Promoting Reconciliation Aer Genocide and Mass Killing in Rwanda—and Other Postconict Settings: Understanding the Roots of Violence, Healing, Shared History, and General Principles
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Ordinary People and “Death Work”: Palestinian Suicide Bombers as Victimizers and Victims
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Collective Trauma and the Social Construction of Meaning
Hirschberger, G. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01441 · Cited by 581 · see citing works
Overcoming competitive victimhood and facilitating forgiveness through re-categorization into a common victim or perpetrator identity
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Microaggression and Moral Cultures
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Sociopsychological analysis of conflict-supporting narratives
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Why We Hate
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Inclusive Victim Consciousness in Advocacy, Social Movements, and Intergroup Relations: Promises and Pitfalls
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Included but Invisible? Subtle Bias, Common Identity, and the Darker Side of “We”
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The Role of Inclusive and Exclusive Victim Consciousness in Predicting Intergroup Attitudes: Findings from R wanda, B urundi, and DRC
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The enemy as animal: Symmetric dehumanization during asymmetric warfare
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Intergroup reconciliation: Instrumental and socio-emotional processes and the needs-based model
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Self-citation
Competitive victimhood: a review of the theoretical and empirical literature
Young, I. F., & Sullivan, D. (2016) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.04.004 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
The Role of Agency and Morality in Reconciliation Processes
Shnabel, N., & Nadler, A. (2015) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721415601625 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
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Priming effects of a reconciliation radio drama on historical perspective-taking in the aftermath of mass violence in Rwanda
Bilali, R., & Vollhardt, J. R. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.08.011 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
We are sorry: Intergroup apologies and their tenuous link with intergroup forgiveness
Hornsey, M. J., & Wohl, M. J. A. (2013) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2013.822206 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Inclusive victim consciousness predicts minority group members’ support for refugees and immigrants
Vollhardt, J. R., Nair, R., & Tropp, L. R. (2016) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12368 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Three layers of collective victimhood: effects of multileveled victimhood on intergroup conflicts in the I sraeli– A rab context
Schori‐Eyal, N., Halperin, E., & Bar‐Tal, D. (2014) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12268 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Victim and Perpetrator Groups’ Divergent Perspectives on Collective Violence: Implications for Intergroup Relations
Bilali, R., & Vollhardt, J. R. (2019) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12570 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
How Is Existential Threat Related to Intergroup Conflict? Introducing the Multidimensional Existential Threat (MET) Model
Hirschberger, G., Ein‐Dor, T., Leidner, B., & Saguy, T. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01877 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Portrayal of the Other in P alestinian and Israeli Schoolbooks: A Comparative Study
Adwan, S., Bar‐Tal, D., & Wexler, B. E. (2014) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12227 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Traumatic Rift: How Conspiracy Beliefs Undermine Cohesion After Societal Trauma?
Bilewicz, M., Witkowska, M., Pantazi, M., Gkinopoulos, T., & Klein, O. (2019) · Europe's Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v15i1.1699 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Signaling virtuous victimhood as indicators of Dark Triad personalities.
Ok, E., Qian, Y., Strejcek, B., & Aquino, K. F. (2020) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000329 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Collective Apologies and Their Effects on Forgiveness: Pessimistic Evidence but Constructive Implications
Hornsey, M. J., Wohl, M. J. A., & Philpot, C. R. (2015) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1111/ap.12087 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Competitive victimhood as a lens to reconciliation: An analysis of the black lives matter and blue lives matter movements
Solomon, J., & Martin, A. (2019) · Conflict Resolution Quarterly · doi:10.1002/crq.21262 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
History as the narrative of a people: From function to structure and content
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The Psychology of White Nationalism: Ambivalence Towards a Changing America
Reyna, C., Bellovary, A. K., & Harris, K. (2022) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12081 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Intraminority solidarity: The role of critical consciousness
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The Shadows of the Past
Schori-Eyal, N., Klar, Y., Roccas, S., & McNeill, A. R. (2017) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167216689063 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Collective Memory, Social Psychology of
Licata, L., & Mercy, A. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.24046-4 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
When collective memories of victimhood fade: generational evolution of intergroup attitudes and political aspirations in Belgium.
Rimé, B., Bouchat, P., Klein, O., & Licata, L. (2015) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2104 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
The tendency for interpersonal victimhood: The personality construct and its consequences
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Self-citation
The two-sided role of inclusive victimhood for intergroup reconciliation: Evidence from Northern Ireland.
Cohrs, J. C., McNeill, A. R., & Vollhardt, J. R. (2015) · Peace and Conflict Journal of Peace Psychology · doi:10.1037/pac0000141 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Feeling Both Victim and Perpetrator
SimanTov‐Nachlieli, I., & Shnabel, N. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167213510746 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Self-citation
When do victim group members feel a moral obligation to help suffering others?
Warner, R. H., Wohl, M. J. A., & Branscombe, N. R. (2014) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2010 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Motivated to “Forget”
Rotella, K. N., & Richeson, J. A. (2013) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550613482986 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
A Whole Other Story
Adelman, L., Leidner, B., Ünal, H., Nahhas, E. A. H., & Shnabel, N. (2016) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167216662868 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citation
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Authors: Noor, M., Shnabel, N., Halabi, S., & Nadler, A.
Affiliations: Canterbury Christ Church University (GB)
Tel Aviv University (IL)
Academic College of Tel Aviv-Yafo (IL)
ORCID: Noor, Masi
Shnabel, Nurit
Halabi, Samer
Nadler, Arie
Venue: Personality and Social Psychology Review
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2012-03-29
Volume: 16
Issue: 4
Pages: 351-374
ISSN: 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
1532-7957
DOI: 10.1177/1088868312440048
OpenAlex: W2143901602
Cited by: 419
References: 195
Citations by year: 2026: 38 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 2
FWCI: 61.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
eprints.keele.ac.uk
Licence: cc-by
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Keele Research Repository (Keele University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Forgiveness and Related Behaviors
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Political Conflict and Governance
Keywords: competitive victimhood, intergroup conflict, victimhood, conflict escalation, intergroup forgiveness, power system restoration, intergroup competition, violent conflict
MeSH terms: Culture, Group Processes, Humans, Social Behavior, Social Identification, Stress, Psychological, Violence, Crime Victims

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When Suffering Begets Suffering: The Psychology of Competitive Victimhood Between Adversarial Groups in Violent Conflicts

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