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Associations of Cognitive Function Scores with Carbon Dioxide, Ventilation, and Volatile Organic Compound Exposures in Office Workers: A Controlled Exposure Study of Green and Conventional Office Environments
Open accessAbstract
Background: The indoor built environment plays a critical role in our overall well-being because of both the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of buildings to positively or negatively influence our health. The advent of sustainable design or green building strategies reinvigorated questions regarding the specific factors in buildings that lead to optimized conditions for health and productivity. Objective: We simulated indoor environmental quality (IEQ) conditions in “Green” and “Conventional” buildings and evaluated the impacts on an objective measure of human performance: higher-order cognitive function. Methods: Twenty-four participants spent 6 full work days (0900–1700 hours) in an environmentally controlled office space, blinded to test conditions. On different days, they were exposed to IEQ conditions representative of Conventional [high concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)] and Green (low concentrations of VOCs) office buildings in the United States. Additional conditions simulated a Green building with a high outdoor air ventilation rate (labeled Green+) and artificially elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) levels independent of ventilation. Results: On average, cognitive scores were 61% higher on the Green building day and 101% higher on the two Green+ building days than on the Conventional building day (p < 0.0001). VOCs and CO2 were independently associated with cognitive scores. Conclusions: Cognitive function scores were significantly better under Green+ building conditions than in the Conventional building conditions for all nine functional domains. These findings have wide-ranging implications because this study was designed to reflect conditions that are commonly encountered every day in many indoor environments. Citation: Allen JG, MacNaughton P, Satish U, Santanam S, Vallarino J, Spengler JD. 2016. Associations of cognitive function scores with carbon dioxide, ventilation, and volatile organic compound exposures in office workers: a controlled exposure study of green and conventional office environments. Environ Health Perspect 124:805–812; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1510037
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“Low ventilation rates and CO2 concentrations normally found in office buildings (approximately 1,000 ppm) have been recently associated with impairment in multiple domains of high-order cognitive function [45,46].”
From Reduced cognitive function during a heat wave among residents of non-air-conditioned buildings: An observational study of young adults in the summer of 2016 (2018) · cites this paper as [46]
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Shukla, P., Mishra, S. S., & Goswami, S. (2024) · Journal of Building Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2024.108648 · Cited by 6
Corona, J., Tondini, S., Nottiani, D. G., Scilla, R., Gambaro, A., Pasut, W., Babich, F., & Lollini, R. (2024) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s24072176 · Cited by 6
Air Quality in Sport Facilities
Grande, M. S., & Cao, G. (2019) · E3S Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/e3sconf/201911102023 · Cited by 6
Can plants be considered a building service?
Gubb, C., Blanuša, T., Griffiths, A., & Pfrang, C. (2020) · Building Services Engineering Research and Technology · doi:10.1177/0143624419899519 · Cited by 6
“Concentrations of CO2 > 800ppm are more likely to cause eye irritation, and upper respiratory symptoms(79) and CO2 concentrations of 950ppm reduce cognitive function.(29) Additionally, it has been determined that an increase in 100ppm of CO2 in a school environment is associated with a reduced annual attendance of hal…”
BackgroundCan We Sustain Sustainability? A Critical Synthesis of Pertinent Literature
Brand, J. L., & Augustin, S. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su132212753 · Cited by 6
“Furthermore, by studying people who worked in a green environment for six full days, Allen and colleagues [33] learned that higher-order cognitive function was enhanced in the environmentally responsible structure.”
BackgroundA Literature Review on Healthy Buildings Based on Various Perspectives
Amatkasmin, L. R., Berawi, M. A., & Sari, M. (2022) · Lecture notes in civil engineering · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-7949-0_51 · Cited by 6
Du, X., Gao, G., Gao, F., & Zhou, Z. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su151914200 · Cited by 6
An outline to futureproofing cities with ten immediate steps
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“Specific conditions integrated into the architecture and landscape design of spaces can achieve improved human happiness, learning and productivity leading to heightened employee attraction and retention (Allen et al., 2015; Jones and Laquidara-Carr, 2016).”
BackgroundEvidence-Based Design for Indoor Environmental Quality and Health
Bayer, C. W. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-0684-1_604 · Cited by 6
(2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816774-8.00004-9 · Cited by 6
Smart Ventilation Controls for Occupancy and Auxiliary Fan Use Across U.S. Climates
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“One of the sole exceptions was an experimental study by Allen et al. (2015) on 24 human subjects that suggested an effect on psychomotricity performance above 1,000 ppm attributable to CO2, but which must still be investigated further according to the authors. A more recent study by Zhang, Wargocki, & Lian (2017) was…”
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Synergistic Air Quality and Cooling Efficiency in Office Space with Indoor Green Walls
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Yu, J., Wang, T., Quan, S., Zhang, J., & Zhao, C. (2026) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2026.117503 · Cited by 5
Retirement Village Design Features: Generation X’s Expectation
Bohari, A. A. M., Julaihi, F. A., Kipli, K., Azman, M. A., Amirul, S. R., & Hu, X. (2024) · Pertanika journal of social science & humanities · doi:10.47836/pjssh.32.2.15 · Cited by 5
Integrated Intelligent Educational Environment – Opportunities for STEM Education
Terzieva, V. T., Ilchev, S., & Djambazova, E. (2024) · IFAC-PapersOnLine · doi:10.1016/j.ifacol.2024.07.132 · Cited by 5
Domjan, S., Fink, R., & Medved, S. (2025) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2025.115354 · Cited by 5
Hawkins, V. R., Marcham, C. L., Springston, J. P., Miller, J. D., Braybrooke, G., Maunder, C., Feng, L. G. H., & Kollmeyer, B. (2020) · Scholarly Commons (Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University) · Cited by 5
Assessing human performance and human reliability: a review
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“The most used characteristics to assess human performance in are cognition (Allen et al. 2016), sustained cognitive performance (Muto et al.”
BackgroundBuckley, S., Connolly, C. L., Levy, J. I., Templer, P. H., Ashmore, J., Carvalho, L. E., Phillips, N. G., & Fabian, M. P. (2023) · Sustainable Cities and Society · doi:10.1016/j.scs.2023.104792 · Cited by 5
Court Decisions and Air Pollution: Evidence from Ten Million Penal Cases in India
Sarmiento, L., & Nowakowski, A. (2023) · Environmental and Resource Economics · doi:10.1007/s10640-023-00805-2 · Cited by 5
“Results from randomized control trials substantiate the above evidence, wherein people score higher in cognitive function tests if randomly allocated to better air quality (Allen et al. 2016).”
BackgroundResult
Metadata
- Authors
- Allen, J. G., MacNaughton, P., Satish, U., Santanam, S., Vallarino, J., & Spengler, J. D.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- SUNY Upstate Medical University (US)
- Syracuse University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Allen, Joseph G.
- Venue
- Environmental Health Perspectives
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2015-10-26
- Volume
- 124
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 805-812
- ISSN
- 0091-6765 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-9924
- PMC
- PMC4892924
- OpenAlex
- W2412131385
- Cited by
- 977
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 138 · 2025: 121 · 2024: 121 · 2023: 88 · 2022: 103 · 2021: 107 · 2020: 86 · 2019: 84 · 2018: 66 · 2017: 36 · 2016: 25 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 26.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- public-domain
- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor, 795 d)
- Locations
- Environmental Health Perspectives (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (T32ES007069)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Indoor Air Quality and Microbial Exposure
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Architecture › Facilities and Workplace Management
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Sustainable Building Design and Assessment
- Keywords
- cognitive function, carbon dioxide exposure, indoor ventilation, volatile organic compounds, sustainable construction, indoor environmental quality, office workers, higher-order cognition
- MeSH terms
- Air Pollutants, Occupational, Carbon Dioxide, Cognition, Humans, United States, Ventilation, Occupational Exposure, Air Pollution, Indoor, Volatile Organic Compounds
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