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Associations of Cognitive Function Scores with Carbon Dioxide, Ventilation, and Volatile Organic Compound Exposures in Office Workers: A Controlled Exposure Study of Green and Conventional Office Environments
Open accessAbstract
Background: The indoor built environment plays a critical role in our overall well-being because of both the amount of time we spend indoors (~90%) and the ability of buildings to positively or negatively influence our health. The advent of sustainable design or green building strategies reinvigorated questions regarding the specific factors in buildings that lead to optimized conditions for health and productivity. Objective: We simulated indoor environmental quality (IEQ) conditions in “Green” and “Conventional” buildings and evaluated the impacts on an objective measure of human performance: higher-order cognitive function. Methods: Twenty-four participants spent 6 full work days (0900–1700 hours) in an environmentally controlled office space, blinded to test conditions. On different days, they were exposed to IEQ conditions representative of Conventional [high concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)] and Green (low concentrations of VOCs) office buildings in the United States. Additional conditions simulated a Green building with a high outdoor air ventilation rate (labeled Green+) and artificially elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) levels independent of ventilation. Results: On average, cognitive scores were 61% higher on the Green building day and 101% higher on the two Green+ building days than on the Conventional building day (p < 0.0001). VOCs and CO2 were independently associated with cognitive scores. Conclusions: Cognitive function scores were significantly better under Green+ building conditions than in the Conventional building conditions for all nine functional domains. These findings have wide-ranging implications because this study was designed to reflect conditions that are commonly encountered every day in many indoor environments. Citation: Allen JG, MacNaughton P, Satish U, Santanam S, Vallarino J, Spengler JD. 2016. Associations of cognitive function scores with carbon dioxide, ventilation, and volatile organic compound exposures in office workers: a controlled exposure study of green and conventional office environments. Environ Health Perspect 124:805–812; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1510037
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“Low ventilation rates and CO2 concentrations normally found in office buildings (approximately 1,000 ppm) have been recently associated with impairment in multiple domains of high-order cognitive function [45,46].”
From Reduced cognitive function during a heat wave among residents of non-air-conditioned buildings: An observational study of young adults in the summer of 2016 (2018) · cites this paper as [46]
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Ramezani, N., Tamošaitienė, J., Sarvari, H., & Golestanizadeh, M. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17083389 · Cited by 2
Experimental Study on the Investigation of Thermal Comfort in Night Sleep Conditions
Mazandarani, M., & Heidari, S. (2025) · Indoor Air · doi:10.1155/ina/1452584 · Cited by 2
Mixture of organic pollutants is associated with cognitive aging
Kalia, V., Manz, K. E., Benavides, J., Song, S., Vollmer, B. L., Yan, B., Goldsmith, J., Pennell, K. D., Stern, Y., Kioumourtzoglou, M., et al. (2026) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.71399 · Cited by 2
Schreiber, L., Schuh, B., Shchegelskiy, K., Wardah, W., Büyüktaş, T. M. K., Möller, S., & Spang, R. P. (2025) · International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) · doi:10.1109/qomex65720.2025.11219970 · Cited by 2
“…which raises questions about whether degraded air quality might influence perceptual judgments. a) Air Quality and Cognitive Performance: Previous research has shown that even moderate CO 2 levels around 1,000 ppm can impair cognitive functions such as decision-making and attention [1], [2].”
Yu, H., Zhang, J., Liu, Q., Li, D., Pan, R., Miao, G., Chen, Y., Kou, Z., Qu, G., Zhang, R., et al. (2025) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.202512663 · Cited by 2
Beryozkina, S., & Zicmane, I. (2025) · Symmetry · doi:10.3390/sym17122048 · Cited by 2
Mapping the Knowledge Frontier in Environmental Health and Sustainability in Construction
Emere, C. E., & Oguntona, O. A. (2026) · Eng—Advances in Engineering · doi:10.3390/eng7010029 · Cited by 3
“Additionally, sustainable architectural design and energy-efficient buildings improve indoor environmental quality by improving ventilation, enhancing thermal comfort, and reducing exposure to hazardous pollutants, thereby boosting occupant health and productivity [21,143].”
Li, Y., Zhao, H. Q., Su, G., Meng, Y., Zhang, Y., Li, Y., Ding, R., Chen, Z., & Yan, J. (2026) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2026.114586 · Cited by 2
Zang, T., Awada, M., Becerik-Gerber, B., Roll, S. C., Lucas, G., & Narayanan, S. (2026) · Indoor Environments · doi:10.1016/j.indenv.2026.100171 · Cited by 2
Pellegrino, N., Eliasziw, M., Fortinsky, R. H., Gates, H., & Brugge, D. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-48063-8 · Cited by 2
“Other crossover trials of air filtration that examined the effect of air pollution on cognition have also reported that higher exposure to particulate matter was associated with worse executive function and attention switching 7,25,26 .”
Jiang, J., Zhang, J., Nie, H., Jiang, Z., Li, J., & Ma, C. (2026) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2026.114709 · Cited by 2
Chikamoto, T., & MIMURA, R. (2019) · E3S Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/e3sconf/201911102068 · Cited by 2
Prentice, S. B., & Waliczek, T. M. (2021) · HortTechnology · doi:10.21273/horttech04883-21 · Cited by 2
Oye, T. T., Gupta, N. K., Goh, K. B., & Oye, T. K. (2021) · Environmental Management and Sustainable Development · doi:10.5296/emsd.v11i1.19027 · Cited by 2
“Research study by Altinten et al. (2006) anticipated a structured fuzzy control utilising GA as offered in Figure 2 for the control of temperature.”
BackgroundInfluentialChristensen, L. E., Mansour, K., Pleil, J. D., & Troy, R. F. (2022) · Journal of Breath Research · doi:10.1088/1752-7163/ac740e · Cited by 2
“Studies suggest that individuals breathing inspired air with CO2 > 1000 ppm over a sufficiently long time (many hours) can experience impaired cognition [21, 22].”
BackgroundExperimental Prototype and Measurement Driven Study of Indoor Air Quality
Alkaabi, S., Suhail, F. S., Almansoori, H., Alhammadi, A., Kulkarni, S., Pradeep, B., & Kulkarni, P. (2023) · IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for Living Environment (MetroLivEnv) · doi:10.1109/metrolivenv56897.2023.10164064 · Cited by 2
“Results from [3] support this possibility – low ventilation rates and CO2 levels above 900 ppm were found to be associated with significantly lower test scores.”
BackgroundInfluentialChen, Q., Kim, S.-K., Han, J., & Kim, C. (2023) · Journal of Green Building · doi:10.3992/jgb.18.4.169 · Cited by 2
Integrating the Physical Environment Within a Population Neuroscience Perspective
Smith, L. (2024) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2024_477 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Allen, J. G., MacNaughton, P., Satish, U., Santanam, S., Vallarino, J., & Spengler, J. D.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- SUNY Upstate Medical University (US)
- Syracuse University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Allen, Joseph G.
- Venue
- Environmental Health Perspectives
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2015-10-26
- Volume
- 124
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 805-812
- ISSN
- 0091-6765 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-9924
- PMC
- PMC4892924
- OpenAlex
- W2412131385
- Cited by
- 977
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 138 · 2025: 121 · 2024: 121 · 2023: 88 · 2022: 103 · 2021: 107 · 2020: 86 · 2019: 84 · 2018: 66 · 2017: 36 · 2016: 25 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 26.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- public-domain
- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor, 795 d)
- Locations
- Environmental Health Perspectives (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (T32ES007069)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Indoor Air Quality and Microbial Exposure
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Architecture › Facilities and Workplace Management
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Sustainable Building Design and Assessment
- Keywords
- cognitive function, carbon dioxide exposure, indoor ventilation, volatile organic compounds, sustainable construction, indoor environmental quality, office workers, higher-order cognition
- MeSH terms
- Air Pollutants, Occupational, Carbon Dioxide, Cognition, Humans, United States, Ventilation, Occupational Exposure, Air Pollution, Indoor, Volatile Organic Compounds
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