The effect of baseline performance and age on cognitive training improvements in older adults: a qualitative review
Open accessAbstract
Findings that the brain is capable of plasticity up until old age have led to interest in the use of cognitive training as a potential intervention to delay the onset of dementia. However, individuals participating in training regimens differ greatly with respect to their outcomes, demonstrating the importance of considering individual differences, in particular age and baseline performance in a cognitive domain, when evaluating the effectiveness of cognitive training. In this review, we summarize existing literature on cognitive training in adults across the domains of episodic memory, working memory and the task-switching component of executive functioning to clarify the picture on the impact of age and baseline performance on cognitive training-related improvements. Studies targeting episodic memory induced greater improvements in younger adults with more intact cognitive abilities, explained in part by factors specific to episodic memory training. By contrast, older, lower baseline performance adults improved most in several studies targeting working memory in older individuals as well as in the majority of studies targeting executive functioning, suggesting the preservation of neural plasticity in these domains until very old age. Our findings can have important implications for informing the design of future interventions for enhancing cognitive functions in individuals at the prodromal stage of Alzheimer's Disease and potentially delaying the clinical onset of Alzheimer's Disease. Future research should more clearly stratify individuals according to their baseline cognitive abilities and assign specialized, skill-specific cognitive training regimens in order to directly answer the question of how individual differences impact training effectiveness.
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Individuals with lower baseline cognitive ability demonstrate greater performance gains following cognitive training compared to those with higher baseline cognitive ability.
“For instance, individuals with lower baseline cognitive ability demonstrate greater performance gains following cognitive training compared to those with higher baseline cognitive ability, potentially due to a sufficient “mismatch” between the task demand and functional supply of the brain [68–72].”
From Primary outcome from the augmenting cognitive training in older adults study (ACT): A tDCS and cognitive training randomized clinical trial (2023) · cites this paper as [70]
The Discussion (Task Difficulty Helps Explain Differential Training Gains; page unavailable) reports that lower-baseline participants may gain more from working-memory training when task demands provide an appropriate mismatch. But the Abstract and Discussion also report the opposite pattern for some episodic-memory training, so the source does not support the claim as a general rule across cognitive training. (LLM, conf=0.90)
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- Authors
- Shaw, J. S., & Hosseini, S. M. H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford Medicine (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hosseini, S.M. Hadi
- Venue
- The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-01
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 100-109
- ISSN
- 2274-5807 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8290874
- OpenAlex
- W3093964299
- Cited by
- 41
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 6
- FWCI
- 0.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer s Disease (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (K25AG050759, R21AG064263)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R61MH119289, R21MH123873)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- cognitive training, older adults, baseline cognitive performance, age effects, neuroplasticity, episodic memory, working memory, executive function, task switching, dementia prevention, Alzheimer's disease, individual differences, training effectiveness
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Aged, Aging, Humans, Memory, Short-Term, Qualitative Research, Executive Function, Memory, Episodic
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