Working memory training coupled with transcranial direct current stimulation in older adults: a randomized controlled experiment
Open accessAbstract
Background: Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been employed to boost working memory training (WMT) effects. Nevertheless, there is limited evidence on the efficacy of this combination in older adults. The present study is aimed to assess the delayed transfer effects of tDCS coupled with WMT in older adults in a 15-day follow-up. We explored if general cognitive ability, age, and educational level predicted the effects. Methods: In this single-center, double-blind randomized sham-controlled experiment, 54 older adults were randomized into three groups: anodal-tDCS (atDCS)+WMT, sham-tDCS (stDCS)+WMT, and double-sham. Five sessions of tDCS (2 mA) were applied over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Far transfer was measured by Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPM), while the near transfer effects were assessed through Digit Span. A frequentist linear mixed model (LMM) was complemented by a Bayesian approach in data analysis. Results: Working memory training improved dual n-back performance in both groups submitted to this intervention but only the group that received atDCS+WMT displayed a significant improvement from pretest to follow-up in transfer measures of reasoning (RAPM) and short-term memory (forward Digit Span). Near transfer improvements predicted gains in far transfer, demonstrating that the far transfer is due to an improvement in the trained construct of working memory. Age, formal education, and vocabulary score seem to predict the gains in reasoning. However, Bayesian results do not provide substantial evidence to support this claim. Conclusion: This study will help to consolidate the incipient but auspicious field of cognitive training coupled with tDCS in healthy older adults. Our findings demonstrated that atDCS may potentialize WMT by promoting transfer effects in short-term memory and reasoning in older adults, which are observed especially at follow-up.
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Teixeira-Santos and colleagues (2022) demonstrated that intervention-related improvements on near-transfer tasks predicted improvements on an untrained reasoning task, suggesting that far-transfer effects are directly related to the enhancement of the trained construct.
“Similarly, Teixeira-Santos and colleagues (2022) demonstrated that intervention-related improvements on near-transfer tasks predicted improvements on an untrained reasoning task, suggesting that far-transfer effects are directly related to the enhancement of the trained construct [46].”
From Primary outcome from the augmenting cognitive training in older adults study (ACT): A tDCS and cognitive training randomized clinical trial (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPrior evidence shows enhanced cognitive performance in domains of working memory and episodic memory and evidence of transfer effects following active stimulation with cognitive training in older adults.
“This is surprising given prior evidence of enhanced cognitive performance in domains of working memory and episodic memory and evidence of transfer effects following active stimulation with cognitive training in older adults [33–36, 46, 47].”
From Primary outcome from the augmenting cognitive training in older adults study (ACT): A tDCS and cognitive training randomized clinical trial (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
The Results and Conclusion (no page numbers in our copy) report improved working-memory task performance and transfer to short-term memory and reasoning in older adults receiving active stimulation with training. They do not report an episodic-memory outcome; working-memory task performance also improved in the sham-stimulation training group. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS)
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Self-citationTronelli, V., Barbon, A., & Mazza, V. (2026) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci16090981
- Authors
- Teixeira-Santos, A. C., Moreira, C. S., Pereira, D. R., Pinal, D., Fregni, F., Leite, J., Carvalho, S., & Sampaio, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Luxembourg (LU)
- Universidade do Porto (PT)
- University of Minho (PT)
- Harvard University (US)
- William James Center for Research (PT)
- Corresponding author
- Teixeira-Santos, Ana C.
- Sampaio, Adriana
- ORCID
- Venue
- Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2022-04-12
- Volume
- 14
- Pages
- 827188-827188
- ISSN
- 1663-4365 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC9039392
- OpenAlex
- W4223557510
- Cited by
- 27
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 1
- FWCI
- 1.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Open Repository and Bibliography (University of Luxembourg) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Repositório da Universidade Portucalense (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Fundação Bial
- Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (POC-01-0145-FEDER-028682, NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-032152, UID/PSI/01662/2019, SFRH/BD/80965/2011)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- transcranial direct current stimulation, working memory training, older adults, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, far transfer, near transfer, cognitive training, reasoning, short-term memory, general intelligence
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