Tell me more! assessing interactions with social robots from speech
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Abstract
As social robots are increasingly introduced into health interventions, one potential area where they might prove valuable is in supporting people’s psychological health through conversation. Given the importance of self-disclosure for psychological health, this study assessed the viability of using social robots for eliciting rich disclosures that identify needs and emotional states in human interaction partners. Three within-subject experiments were conducted with participants interacting with another person, a humanoid social robot, and a disembodied conversational agent (voice assistant). We performed a number of objective evaluations of disclosures to these three agents via speech content and voice analyses and also probed participants’ subjective evaluations of their disclosures to three agents. Our findings suggest that participants overall disclose more to humans than artificial agents, that agents’ embodiment influences disclosure quantity and quality, and that people are generally aware of differences in their personal disclosures to three agents studied here. Together, the findings set the stage for further investigation into the psychological underpinnings of self-disclosures to artificial agents and their potential role in eliciting disclosures as part of mental and physical health interventions.
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There is some evidence suggesting that when agents provide feedback, users also expect their own feedback to be understood by the agent.
“There is some evidence suggesting that when agents provide feedback, users also expect their own feedback to be understood by the agent (Sidner et al., 2006; Kontogiorgos et al., 2021; Laban et al., 2021).”
From Modeling Feedback in Interaction With Conversational Agents—A Review (2022) · cites this paper as Laban et al., 2021
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Let's Talk About It! Subjective and Objective Disclosures to Social Robots
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Self-citationProsody recognition in male infant-directed speech
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Theory of Robot Communication: I. The Medium is the Communication Partner
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What You Say and How You Say It
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Body Movements Generation for Virtual Characters and Social Robots
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Emotion recognition in valence-arousal scale by using physiological signals
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How do People Perceive Privacy and Interaction Quality while Chatting with a Crowd-operated Robot?
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Talker Quality in Human and Machine Interaction
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The Relevance of Social Cues in Assistive Training with a Social Robot
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Henschel, A., Laban, G., & Cross, E. S. (2021) · Current Robotics Reports · doi:10.1007/s43154-020-00035-0 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
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The Effect of Personalization Techniques in Users' Perceptions of Conversational Recommender Systems
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Self-citationInformal Caregivers Disclose Increasingly More to a Social Robot Over Time
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Maggioni, M. A., & Rossignoli, D. (2023) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics · doi:10.1016/j.socec.2023.102011 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Ethics of Conversational User Interfaces
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Self-citationGrundke, A. (2023) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2023.2210688 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Duradoni, M., Colombini, G., Russo, P. A., & Guazzini, A. (2021) · J — Multidisciplinary Scientific Journal · doi:10.3390/j4040048 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Luo, R., Zhang, T. X. Y., Chen, D. H.-C., Hoorn, J. F., & Huang, I. S. (2022) · Robotics · doi:10.3390/robotics11050092 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Liu, W., Xu, K., & Yao, M. Z. (2023) · Communication Research Reports · doi:10.1080/08824096.2023.2212899 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Social robot advisors: effects of robot judgmental fallacies and context
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LEXI: Large Language Models Experimentation Interface
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Axelsson, A., & Skantze, G. (2022) · Frontiers in Computer Science · doi:10.3389/fcomp.2021.741148 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Koebel, K., Lacayo, M., Murali, M., Tarnanas, I., & Çöltekin, A. (2022) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-94890-0_2 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Laban, G., & Araujo, T. (2022) · International Conference on Human-Agent Interaction (HAI) · doi:10.1145/3527188.3561929 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationWang, Y., Dai, Y., Chen, S., Wang, L., & Hoorn, J. F. (2023) · Systems · doi:10.3390/systems11080425 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Social robot for older adults with cognitive decline: a preliminary trial
Figueroa, D., Yamazaki, R., Nishio, S., Maalouly, E., Nagata, Y., Satake, Y., Yamakawa, M., Suzuki, M., Kanemoto, H., Ikeda, M., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2023.1213705 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Robinson, N., Connolly, J., Suddrey, G., & Kavanagh, D. J. (2023) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-023-01054-5 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Sayis, B., & Güneş, H. (2024) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1145/3610978.3640721 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Zhang, A., & Rau, P. P. (2022) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-022-00895-w · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Lonely Minds and Robotic Bonds: Effects of Human Loneliness on the Anthropomorphization of Robots
Leichtmann, B., Gollob, E., Mayer, M., Paschmanns, A. K., & Mara, M. (2025) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-025-01210-z · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Knowledge cues to human origins facilitate self-disclosure during interactions with chatbots
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Cognitive Hexagon-Controlled Intelligent Speech Interaction System
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Nuñez, T. R., Jakobowsky, C., Prynda, K., Bergmann, K., & Pütten, A. M. R.-V. D. (2023) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2023.103093 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
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Robotising Psychometrics: Validating Wellbeing Assessment Tools in Child-Robot Interactions
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Coping with Emotional Distress via Self-Disclosure to Robots: Intervention with CaregiversPreprint
Laban, G., Morrison, V. L., Kappas, A., & Cross, E. S. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gbk2j · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationCross, E. S., & Kappas, A. (2025) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-040325-025951 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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Powell, H., Laban, G., George, J.-N., & Cross, E. S. (2022) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1109/hri53351.2022.9889431 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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Self-citationLaban, G. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/fhdek · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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Forghani, D., Ghafurian, M., Rasouli, S., Nehaniv, C. L., & Dautenhahn, K. (2024) · Paladyn Journal of Behavioral Robotics · doi:10.1515/pjbr-2024-0004 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Exploring Social Robots for Healthy Older Adults: Aging With Companionship
Tschida, J., Michael, K., & McDaniel, T. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Technology and Society · doi:10.1109/tts.2024.3521341 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Laban, G., & Araujo, T. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/w4mkv · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationDesigning Artificial Identity: The Identity Design Framework and Research Agenda
Bransky, K., Sweetser, P., Holthaus, P., Laban, G., Winkle, K., Akalın, N., Ashok, A., Lee, J., Khot, R., Bejarano, A., et al. (2026) · Designing Interactive Systems Conference · doi:10.1145/3800645.3812962 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationJiang, C., Guan, X., Zhu, J., Wang, Z., Xie, F., & Wang, W. (2023) · Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1080/0952813x.2023.2263456 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-Disclosure Themes and Semantics Across Human, Robotic, and Disembodied Conversational Partners
Chiang, S., Laban, G., Cross, E. S., & Güneş, H. (2025) · IEEE RO-MAN · doi:10.1109/ro-man63969.2025.11217701 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationBias and Fairness in Conversational User Interfaces
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Gioumatzidou, S., Velentza, A.-M., & Fachantidis, N. (2025) · IEEE RO-MAN · doi:10.1109/ro-man63969.2025.11217844 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Multilevel dynamics of the brain, hormones, mind, and behavior in social human-robot interaction
Topoglu, Y., Krüeger, F., Joshi, S., Rothstein, N. J., Franke, A. A., Li, X., Gratch, J. S., de Visser, E. J., & Ayaz, H. (2026) · Science Robotics · doi:10.1126/scirobotics.aec1762 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Maggioni, M. A., & Rossignoli, D. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3832601
Maggioni, M. A., & Rossignoli, D. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4003882
System Development and Evaluation of a Social Robot as a Public Speaking Coach
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Attributing Mind to Large Language Models: The Effect of Exposure and Individual Differences
Jacobs, O. L. E., Pazhoohi, F., & Kingstone, A. F. (2026) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-025-01337-z
Nozaki, Y. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior Artificial Humans · doi:10.1016/j.chbah.2026.100260 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Assessment of the Impact of an Artificial Intelligence Robot on Meditation and Mindfulness Practice
Lacuesta, R., Florián, A. G., & Puchalt, E. H. (2026) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-32035-3_18
Clothing the robot, building trust: personalization co-design effects in child–robot interaction
Gioumatzidou, S., Velentza, A.-M., Alepaki, E., & Fachantidis, N. (2026) · Advanced Robotics · doi:10.1080/01691864.2026.2720992
Communicating Emotions and Needs: Social Robots As A Tool to Elicit Self-DisclosurePreprint
Cross, E. S., Laban, G., Morrison, V. L., & George, J.-N. (2020) · doi:10.17605/osf.io/f3d5b
Self-citationMaure, R., Liu, J., Pfaefflin, V., Neef, C., & Bruno, B. (2026) · IEEE RO-MAN · doi:10.1109/ro-man72286.2026.11714957
Social Robotics and Human–Robot Communication
Laban, G., & Cross, E. S. (2026) · Springer tracts in advanced robotics · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-19374-2_8
Self-citation
- Authors
- Laban, G., George, J.-N., Morrison, V., & Cross, E. S.
- Affiliations
- University of Glasgow (GB)
- Bangor University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Cross, Emily S.
- Venue
- Paladyn, Journal of Behavioral Robotics
- Publisher
- Walter de Gruyter GmbH
- Published
- 2020-12-12
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 136-159
- ISSN
- 2080-9778 (ISSN-L)
- 2081-4836
- OpenAlex
- W3113432594
- Cited by
- 81
- References
- 128
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 3
- FWCI
- 12.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Paladyn Journal of Behavioral Robotics (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Repository for Publications and Research Data (ETH Zurich) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- ENLIGHTEN (Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling Islam) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- ETH Zürich Research Collection
- Funders
- Leverhulme Trust (PLP-2018-152)
- European Commission (814072, HORIZON2020)
- H2020 European Research Council (677270)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Speech and dialogue systems
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Emotion and Mood Recognition
- Keywords
- social robots, self-disclosure, human-robot interaction, voice assistants, humanoid robots, embodiment, emotional state, mental health, speech analysis, health interventions, chatbots
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