Self-Perception Theory
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Individuals have only weak inherent attitudes and rather form their attitudes by self-observations.
“These theories constitute that individuals have only weak inherent attitudes and rather form their attitudes by self-observations.”
From AI-based chatbots in customer service and their effects on user compliance (2021) · cites this paper as Bem 1972
Awareness of own prosocial behavior might increase with age based on experiences with own behavior and feedback of others.
“This awareness might increase with age based on experiences with own behavior and feedback of others (Bem, 1972; Brummelman & Thomaes, 2017).”
From Emotion understanding and the moral self-concept as motivators of prosocial behavior in middle childhood (2020) · cites this paper as Bem, 1972
Cognitive-dissonance and self-perception theories suggest that by encouraging managers to help solve the problem, employers help managers to think of themselves as proponents of change.
“Cognitive-dissonance and self-perception theories suggest that by encouraging them to help solve the problem, employers help managers to think of themselves as proponents of change (Bem, 1972;Festinger, 1957;Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959;Ito et al., 2006;Mori and Mori, 2013).”
From Are Diversity Programs Merely Ceremonial? Evidence-Free Institutionalization (2017) · cites this paper as Bem, 1972
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“These changes are explained by self-perception theory (Bem 1972), which posits that individuals continually adjust their perceptions (e.g., expectation) as they acquire new information about the focal behavior (by observing others and their own behaviors).”
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“Bem (1972) argued that the findings could also result from self-perception: The subjects, who have limited direct ac-”
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“Freedman & Fraser (1966) speculated that a major process underlying the FITD effect is one akin to self-perception (Bem 1972).”
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“You discover that an acquaintance is fun by having fun with him (Bem, 1972; Fazio, 1987).”
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“Knox and Inkster (1968) and Bern (1972). 22. Bern (1972) provides a readable survey and overview of self-perception theory.”
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“…relationship between CA and perceived usefulness derives its foundations from innate human tendencies to justify behavior Self-perception theory (Bem 1972) argues that individuals will seek to rationalize their actions and reduce cognitive dissonance (Festinger 1976) Cognitive dissonance as a…”
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“For instance, the person may infer her intention to exercise on the basis of the number of times she exercised last week through a process of self-perception (Bem, 1972); thus, behavior may be the cause of the reported intention rather than the other way round.”
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The Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership: A Self-Concept Based Theory
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The Perceived Competence Scale for Children
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“Concepts such as "self-esteem," "self-concept," and "perceived competence" have become central to formulations emerging from social learning theory (Bandura 1977), selfperception theory (Bem 1972), social cognition (Lepper & Greene 1978), and theories of competence and intrinsic motivation (de Charms 1968; Deci 1975;…”
BackgroundHeuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment
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“We suggest above that past behavior can directly inform intentions for future responses through self-perception (Bem, 1972) and cognitive consistency processes (Festinger, 1957).”
BackgroundIncentives and Prosocial Behavior
Bénabou, R., & Tirole, J. (2006) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.96.5.1652 · Cited by 3,357 · see citing works
Perceived locus of causality and internalization: Examining reasons for acting in two domains.
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“l See Bern (1972) for an alternative viewpoint, namely, that people know their internal states primarily through observation of their behavior and the conditions under which it occurs.”
BackgroundUnderstanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity.
Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., & Banaji, M. R. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015575 · Cited by 3,257 · see citing works
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“…theory (Freud, 1946), social comparison theory (e.g. Festinger, 1954; Suls & Wills, 1991), cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957; Wicklund & Brehm, 19761, self-perception theory (Bem, 1972), attribution theory (e.g. Heider, 1958; Jones, Kanouse, Kelley, Nisbett, Valins & Weiner.”
Implementation intentions and goal achievement: a meta-analysis of effects and processes
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“However, bivariate correlations between goal intentions and future behavior may overestimate the strength of intention–behavior relations because it is possible that future behavior and goal intentions are both determined by self‐perceptions of past behavior (Bem, 1972).”
BackgroundThe Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion
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The Dishonesty of Honest People: A Theory of Self-Concept Maintenance
Mazar, N., Amir, O., & Ariely, D. (2008) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.45.6.633 · Cited by 2,875 · see citing works
Identification in Organizations: An Examination of Four Fundamental Questions
Ashforth, B. E., Harrison, S. H., & Corley, K. G. (2008) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206308316059 · Cited by 2,877 · see citing works
“Indeed, individuals may also use their enactments as data from which to infer their own attitudes toward the emerging identity (e.g., “I must have defended iPods because being an Apple employee is important to me”; Bem, 1972).”
BackgroundTHE CORPORATE SOCIAL PERFORMANCE-FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE LINK
WADDOCK, S. A., & GRAVES, S. B. (1997) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0266(199704)18:4
Bargh, J. A., Chen, M. I.-C., & Burrows, L. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.71.2.230 · Cited by 2,637 · see citing works
Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0035519 · Cited by 2,471 · see citing works
Investor Psychology and Asset Pricing
Hirshleifer, D. A. (2001) · The Journal of Finance · doi:10.1111/0022-1082.00379 · Cited by 2,358 · see citing works
Slovic, P., Finucane, M., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2002) · Heuristics and Biases · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.025 · Cited by 2,349 · see citing works
“Clinical versus Actuarial Judgment.”
Dawes, R. M., Faust, D., & Meehl, P. E. (1989) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2648573 · Cited by 2,298 · see citing works
How Habit Limits the Predictive Power of Intention: The Case of Information Systems Continuance1
Limayem, M., Hirt, S. G., & Cheung, C. M. K. (2007) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.2307/25148817 · Cited by 2,450 · see citing works
Sternberg, R. J. (1986) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.93.2.119 · Cited by 2,614 · see citing works
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The Self-Regulation of Attitudes, Intentions, and Behavior
Bagozzi, R. P. (1992) · Social Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2786945 · Cited by 2,187 · see citing works
Feldman, J. M., & Lynch, J. G. (1988) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.73.3.421 · Cited by 2,070 · see citing works
Knee-deep in the big muddy: a study of escalating commitment to a chosen course of action
Staw, B. M. (1976) · Organizational Behavior and Human Performance · doi:10.1016/0030-5073(76)90005-2 · Cited by 2,061 · see citing works
Sears, D. O. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.3.515 · Cited by 2,138 · see citing works
Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T. Y. (2000) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.107.1.101 · Cited by 2,112 · see citing works
Enhancing Our Lives with Immersive Virtual Reality
Slater, M., & Sanchez-Vives, M. V. (2016) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2016.00074 · Cited by 1,993 · see citing works
“The theoretical basis of Proteus Effect (Yee and Bailenson, 2007) is Self-Perception Theory [e.g., Bem (1972)], which suggests that people infer their attitudes by observing their own behaviors and the context in which these occur, and almost all the examples above do put people into behavioral…”
BackgroundBad for Practice: A Critique of the Transaction Cost Theory
Ghoshal, S., & Moran, P. (1996) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.1996.9602161563 · Cited by 2,407 · see citing works
Gilbert, D. T., & Malone, P. S. (1995) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.21 · Cited by 1,897 · see citing works
Attribution theory and research
Kelley, H. H., & Michela, J. L. (1980) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.31.020180.002325 · Cited by 2,651 · see citing works
Relational Job Design and the Motivation to Make a Prosocial Difference
Grant, A. M. (2007) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2007.24351328 · Cited by 1,864 · see citing works
“Furthermore, even if employees have not objectively succeeded, because they have voluntarily invested greater time and energy in their work in order to benefit others, they are likely to justify their efforts as successful (Bem, 1972; Festinger, 1957).”
BackgroundThe weighing of evidence and the determinants of confidence
Griffin, D., & Tversky, A. (1992) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(92)90013-r · Cited by 1,796 · see citing works
Self-serving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction?
Miller, D. T., & Ross, M. (1975) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0076486 · Cited by 2,575 · see citing works
“While most discussions of self-serving biases in perception of causality have assumed their existence, some authors have questioned the principle's theoretical and empirical underpinnings (Bern, 1972; Kelley, 1971).”
BackgroundHettema, J., Steele, J., & Miller, W. R. (2005) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143833 · Cited by 1,803 · see citing works
Representativeness revisited: Attribute substitution in intuitive judgment.
Kahneman, D., & Frederick, S. (2002) · Heuristics and Biases · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.004 · Cited by 3,476 · see citing works
The Proteus Effect: The Effect of Transformed Self-Representation on Behavior
Yee, N., & Bailenson, J. (2007) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00299.x · Cited by 2,126 · see citing works
“Bem (1972) has argued that people observe their own behaviors to understand what attitudes may have caused them (i.e., self-perception theory).”
BackgroundWhat do people think they're doing? Action identification and human behavior.
Vallacher, R. R., & Wegner, D. M. (1987) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.94.1.3 · Cited by 1,802 · see citing works
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1984) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.1.69 · Cited by 1,727 · see citing works
Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: sadder but wiser?
Alloy, L., & Abramson, L. (1979) · Journal of experimental psychology. General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.108.4.441 · Cited by 1,733 · see citing works
Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: Sadder but wiser?
Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (1979) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.108.4.441 · Cited by 1,692 · see citing works
Toward a theory of motivational interviewing
Miller, W. R., & Rose, G. S. (2009) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0016830 · Cited by 1,603 · see citing works
Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice.
Plant, E. A., & Devine, P. G. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.3.811 · Cited by 1,613 · see citing works
“To the extent that nonprejudiced responses come to be generated consistently and do not appear to be under situational constraints, these individuals may infer that their behavior reflects their underlying attitudes (Bern, 1972).”
BackgroundA unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept.
Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., & Mellott, D. S. (2002) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.109.1.3 · Cited by 1,559 · see citing works
“The set of competitors included Bem’s (1972) self-perception theory, Jones and Davis’s (1965) correspondent inference theory, Tedeschi, Schlenker, and Bonoma’s (1971) impression management theory, and especially Kelley’s (1967) attribution theory, which was itself profoundly shaped by Heider’s work.”
BackgroundConsumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research
Holbrook, M. B. (1999) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,526 · see citing works
Category accessibility and impression formation
Higgins, E. T., Rholes, W. S., & Jones, C. R. (1977) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-1031(77)80007-3 · Cited by 1,502 · see citing works
A new look at habits and the habit-goal interface.
Wood, W., & Neal, D. T. (2007) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.114.4.843 · Cited by 1,470 · see citing works
“When internal causal states are weak, ambiguous, or uninterpretable, people may be forced to draw inferences about such states from their own behavior and other external cues (Bem, 1972).”
BackgroundGaze and eye contact: a research review
Kleinke, C. L. (1986) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.100.1.78 · Cited by 1,455 · see citing works
Paradoxical effects of thought suppression.
Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.53.1.5 · Cited by 2,127 · see citing works
“Another framework that could be applied here is self-perception theory (Bern, 1972).”
BackgroundShafir, E. (1993) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/0010-0277(93)90034-s · Cited by 1,453 · see citing works
The Big Five Personality Factors and Personal Values
Roccas, S., Sagiv, L., Schwartz, S. H., & Knafo‐Noam, A. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202289008 · Cited by 1,457 · see citing works
“Selfperception theory (Bem, 1972) might suggest that traits influence values because people infer what is important to them from their consistent (trait-expressive) behavior.”
BackgroundEase of retrieval as information: another look at the availability heuristic
Schwarz, N., Bless, H., Strack, F., Klumpp, G., Rittenauer-Schatka, H., & Simons, A. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.195 · Cited by 1,412 · see citing works
Kruglanski, A. W., Shah, J. Y., Fishbach, A., Friedman, R., Chun, W. Y., & Sleeth-Keppler, D. (2002) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(02)80008-9 · Cited by 1,386 · see citing works
“Thus, for example, the dissonance versus self-perception debate (Bem, 1972) pitted against each other motivational (i.e., dissonance) versus cognitive (i.e., self-perception) explanations of attitude change phenomena.”
BackgroundBrockner, J., & Wiesenfeld, B. M. (1996) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.189 · Cited by 1,368 · see citing works
“According to selfperception theory (Bern, 1972), individuals infer their attitudes by observing their behavior and the context in which the behavior occurs.”
BackgroundThe empirical exploration of intrinsic motivational processes
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1980) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60130-6 · Cited by 1,352 · see citing works
On the accuracy of personality judgment: A realistic approach
Funder, D. C. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.4.652 · Cited by 1,342 · see citing works
“In the past, some social psychologists have treated self-perception as essentially a special case of the process of other perception (Bern, 1972).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe psychological implications of concealing a stigma: A cognitive-affective-behavioral model
Pachankis, J. E. (2007) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.328 · Cited by 1,305 · see citing works
On the motivational nature of cognitive dissonance: Dissonance as psychological discomfort.
Elliot, A. J., & Devine, P. G. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.3.382 · Cited by 1,289 · see citing works
Recruitment to High-Risk Activism: The Case of Freedom Summer
McAdam, D. (1986) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/228463 · Cited by 2,203 · see citing works
“However , as self-perception theory (Bem 1972) and the research on identity transformation suggest, it is precisely these tentative forays into new roles that pave the way for more thoroughgoing identity changes.”
BackgroundIdentity negotiation: Where two roads meet.
Swann, W. B. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1038 · Cited by 1,237 · see citing works
Direct Experience And Attitude-Behavior Consistency
Fázio, R. H., & Zanna, M. P. (1981) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60372-x · Cited by 1,215 · see citing works
A Stakeholder Approach to Organizational Identity
Scott, S. G., & Lane, V. R. (2000) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2000.2791602 · Cited by 1,189 · see citing works
“When stakeholder behaviors are supportive of an organization's goals and actions, they strengthen managers' perceptions of organizational identity in a direction congruent with desired organizational images, and they become more resistant to change (Bem, 1972).”
BackgroundInfluentialAI-based chatbots in customer service and their effects on user compliance
Adam, M., Wessel, M., & Benlian, A. (2021) · Electronic Markets · doi:10.1007/s12525-020-00414-7 · Cited by 1,195 · see citing works
“Providers use small initial requests and follow up with larger commitments to exploit users ’ self-perceptions (Bem 1972) and attempt to trigger consistent behavior when users decide whether to fulfill a larger, more obliging request, which the users would otherwise not.”
BackgroundSupport theory: a nonextensional representation of subjective probability
Tversky, A., & Koehler, D. J. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.4.547 · Cited by 1,167 · see citing works
Self-disclosure and liking: A meta-analytic review
Collins, N. L., & Miller, L. C. (1994) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.457 · Cited by 1,621 · see citing works
Amabile, T. M. (1993) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/1053-4822(93)90012-s · Cited by 1,150 · see citing works
Psychological status of the script concept.
Abelson, R. P. (1981) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.36.7.715 · Cited by 1,743 · see citing works
Self-serving biases in the attribution process: A reexamination of the fact or fiction question.
Bradley, G. W. (1978) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.36.1.56 · Cited by 1,127 · see citing works
When people ask "why" questions, and the heuristics of attributional search.
Wong, P. T. P., & Weiner, B. L. (1981) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.40.4.650 · Cited by 1,096 · see citing works
“But there is little or no published evidence to substantiate this claim (Bern, 1972; Wortman & Dintzer, 1978).”
BackgroundThe Advantages of an Inclusive Definition of Attitude
Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (2007) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2007.25.5.582 · Cited by 742 · see citing works
“The idea that attitudes derive from behavioral responses has appeared in varying forms, including dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) and self–perception theory (Bem, 1972).”
Backgroundde Groot, J. I. M., & Steg, L. (2009) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.3200/socp.149.4.425-449 · Cited by 1,102 · see citing works
“For example, self-perception theory proposes that people construct their beliefs on the basis of how they behave toward an object (Bem, 1972).”
BackgroundHaws, K. L., Winterich, K. P., & Reczek, R. W. (2013) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2013.11.002 · Cited by 1,124 · see citing works
“…green consumption values may also develop from behaviors that lead to the perception that one is a green consumer not because they have strong green consumption values but because they observe their engagement in environmentallyfriendly behaviors, consistent with self-perception theory (Bem, 1972).”
InfluentialForming attitudes that predict future behavior: A meta-analysis of the attitude-behavior relation.
Glasman, L. R., & Albarracín, D. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.778 · Cited by 1,459 · see citing works
“This approach, for example, controls for the alternative hypothesis that the attitudes people report more quickly derive from past behavioral performances in that domain (see Bem, 1972).”
BackgroundThe Hot Hand in Basketball: On the Misperception of Random Sequences
Gilovich, T., Vallone, R., & Tversky, A. (1985) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(85)90010-6 · Cited by 1,649 · see citing works
Ross, L., Lepper, M. R., & Hubbard, M. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.32.5.880 · Cited by 1,052 · see citing works
Ross, L. D., Lepper, M. R., & HUBBARD, M. L. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.32.5.880 · Cited by 1,052 · see citing works
- Authors
- Bem, D. J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bem, Daryl J.
- Venue
- Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier
- Published
- 1972
- Pages
- 1-62
- ISSN
- 0065-2601 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1748197048
- Cited by
- 5,241
- References
- 93
- Citations by year
- 2026: 182 · 2025: 158 · 2024: 176 · 2023: 191 · 2022: 149 · 2021: 206 · 2020: 237 · 2019: 203 · 2018: 202 · 2017: 159 · 2016: 181 · 2015: 157 · 2014: 186 · 2013: 196 · 2012: 164
- FWCI
- 600.16
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Advances in experimental social psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Keywords
- self-perception theory, self-attribution, cognitive dissonance, interpersonal perception, functional analysis
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