Antifungal Potential of Chitosan and Phenyllactic Acid against Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, the Anthracnose Pathogen in Avocados
Open accessAbstract
Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) is a tropical fruit with significant economic value worldwide. However, the avocado industry faces important challenges from anthracnose rot, caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides species, which affects negatively fruit quality and market value. Growing concerns about synthetic fungicides and consumer demand for safer alternatives drive interest in natural bioactive agents for postharvest disease control. This research assessed the in vitro antifungal efficacy of chitosan (CHI), phenyllactic acid (PLA), individually and in combination, against C. gloeosporioides isolated from Kenyan avocados. Through the poisoned food assay, both CHI and PLA significantly (P < 0.05) inhibited pathogen growth in a concentration-dependent manner. PLA completely (100%) inhibited mycelial growth and conidia germination at 4 mg/mL, while CHI achieved 78.82% inhibition of mycelial growth and 66.67% inhibition of conidia germination at 15 mg/mL. CHI-PLA mixtures exhibited an additive type of interaction (Abbott method) and caused significant morphological deformation of conidia. These findings highlight CHI-PLA mixtures as a promising and sustainable alternative to synthetic fungicides for managing postharvest anthracnose in avocados
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Claims the paper makes
9 of 49 cited sources checked · 4 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Synthetic fungicides used to manage anthracnose are considered non-sustainable because of negative environmental and consumer-health impacts.
“their application is considered non-sustainable due to their negative impact on the environment and consumer health (Kimaru et al. 2020;Mpeluza et al. 2023).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked- cites Kimaru et al. 2020 source
Section 11 (Chemical control) says fungicides can contaminate soil and water and that pesticide residues raise concerns for human health and the environment. It explicitly calls fungicide use unsustainable because resistant fungal strains develop, however, rather than attributing that judgment specifically to environmental and consumer-health impacts. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Mpeluza et al. 2023 source
- Premisecitation
Prior findings that CHI works as a postharvest fruit coating justify the CHI concentration chosen.
“The selected concentration of CHI is supported by previous findings suggesting its effectiveness as a postharvest fruit coating (Ali et al. 2010;Weir et al. 2012;Obianom et al. 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked- cites Ali et al. 2010 source
- cites Weir et al. 2012 source
The Results > Taxonomy and Materials and Methods > Phylogenetic analyses passages concern fungal specimens and strains, not CHI fruit coatings. Searches for chitosan, postharvest fruit coating, and concentration found no passage in our copy addressing the claimed effectiveness or the choice of concentration. Page numbers were not provided. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Obianom et al. 2019
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingcitation
The sequences displayed a strong genetic relationship with Colletotrichum fructicola, Colletotrichum aenigma and Colletotrichum siamense, which belong to the Colletotrichum gloeosporioides species complex.
“Moreover, the sequences also displayed a strong genetic relationship with C. fructicola, C. aenigma and C. siamense species, which belong to the C. gloeosporioides species (Weir et al. 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Weir et al. 2012 source
- Findingcitation
The obtained Colletotrichum gloeosporioides isolates had morphological characteristics consistent with those previously reported for the species.
“These observed morphological characteristics are consistent with those previously reported for the C. gloeosporioides species (Barnett and Hunter 1972;Chowdappa et al. 2012;Weir et al. 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked- cites Barnett and Hunter 1972 source
- cites Chowdappa et al. 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Weir et al. 2012 source
The Results sections on Morphology and biology and Taxonomy describe morphological variation across the species complex and show a culture of C. gloeosporioides (Fig. 24). But the Taxonomy section directs readers to Cannon et al. (2008) for a description of the species, and the cited passages do not establish that the citing paper’s particular observed characteristics match it. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Findingown data
All tested concentrations of phenyllactic acid and chitosan significantly inhibited mycelial growth of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides six days after inoculation.
“All tested concentrations of PLA and CHI demonstrated significant (P < 0.05) inhibitory potential on mycelial growth of C. gloeosporioides 6 days post-inoculation (Fig. 5).”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“Through the poisoned food assay, both CHI and PLA significantly (P < 0.05) inhibited pathogen growth in a concentration-dependent manner.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
Chitosan at 15 mg/mL did not completely inhibit mycelial growth of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides.
“In contrast, CHI did not achieve complete inhibition even at the highest concentration of 15 mg/mL.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Phenyllactic acid at 4 mg/mL completely inhibited mycelial growth of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides.
“A complete inhibition (100%) was achieved at the highest tested concentration of PLA (4 mg/mL).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Mycelial growth inhibition by phenyllactic acid and chitosan increased with concentration, with the highest inhibition at the highest tested concentrations.
“The inhibition percentage of mycelial growth rate increased in a dose-dependent manner, with the highest inhibition percentage obtained at the highest tested concentrations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Chitosan at 15 mg/mL alone inhibited conidia germination by 66.67%.
“while CHI (15 mg/mL) alone inhibited germination by 66.67% (Fig. 6A).”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“CHI achieved 78.82% inhibition of mycelial growth and 66.67% inhibition of conidia germination at 15 mg/mL.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
Chitosan-phenyllactic acid combinations showed an additive interaction across all tested concentrations according to the Abbott method.
“Using the Abbott method, the combination of PLA and CHI consistently exhibited an additive effect across all tested concentrations (Table 3).”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“CHI-PLA mixtures exhibited an additive type of interaction (Abbott method) and caused significant morphological deformation of conidia.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
Pathogenicity tests on mature Hass avocado fruits inoculated with Colletotrichum gloeosporioides isolates produced brown to black, sunken, water-soaked necrotic lesions that spread radially.
“Pathogenicity tests on mature Hass cv.avocado fruits inoculated with C. gloeosporioides isolates resulted in the development of brown to black, sunken, water-soaked necrotic lesions that spread radially (Fig. 3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The positive control completely inhibited conidia germination 12 hours after inoculation.
“PLA (4 mg/mL), the CHI-PLA (15 mg/ mL + 4 mg/mL) combination, and the positive control completely (100%) inhibited conidia germination 12 h post-inoculation”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Phenyllactic acid at 4 mg/mL completely inhibited conidia germination 12 hours after inoculation.
“PLA (4 mg/mL), the CHI-PLA (15 mg/ mL + 4 mg/mL) combination, and the positive control completely (100%) inhibited conidia germination 12 h post-inoculation”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
All treatments inhibited conidia germination of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides.
“All treatments exhibited inhibitory effects on conidia germination.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In this study, all tested CHI-PLA mixtures had additive effects according to the Abbott method.
“In this study, CHI and PLA combinations exhibited consistent additive effects across all tested concentrations, as determined by the Abbott method.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“The different mixtures of CHI and PLA exhibited an additive type of interaction based on the Abbott method.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The C. gloeosporioides isolates used in this study were correctly identified to species level using morphology and ITS sequences alone.
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
- Findingown data
No combined chitosan-phenyllactic acid treatment achieved complete mycelial growth inhibition, even at the highest tested concentrations of both compounds.
“Despite this improvement, no complete mycelial growth inhibition was obtained in any of the combined treatments, even at the highest tested concentrations of both PLA and CHI.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The Abbott Index for chitosan-phenyllactic acid combination treatments ranged from 0.5 to 0.9, indicating an additive rather than synergistic interaction.
“The Abbott Index (AI) for the combination treatments ranged from 0.5 to 0.9, indicating an additive interaction rather than a synergistic effect.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
This study identified only Colletotrichum gloeosporioides as the anthracnose-causing agent in Kiambu County, Kenya.
“In contrast, this study identified only C. gloeosporioides as the anthracnose-causing agent in Kiambu County, Kenya.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In this study, 4 mg/mL PLA completely suppressed both mycelial growth and conidia germination of C. gloeosporioides in vitro.
“In the present study, PLA at 4 mg/mL achieved complete inhibition of both radial mycelia growth and conidia germination of C. gloeosporioides in vitro, whereas CHI did not reach full inhibition even at its highest tested concentration (15 mg/mL).”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“PLA at 4 mg/mL completely inhibited both mycelial growth and conidia germination of C. gloeosporioides, while CHI (15 mg/mL) reduced mycelial growth by 78.82%, and conidia germination by 66.67%.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The C. gloeosporioides isolates used in this study were correctly identified to species level using morphology and ITS sequences alone.
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
- Findingown data
The mycelial growth inhibition produced by the positive control Milraz was statistically comparable to that of phenyllactic acid at 2 mg/mL and chitosan at 10 mg/mL.
“Furthermore, the MGI% achieved by the positive control, Milraz, was statistically (P > 0.05) comparable to that of PLA at 2 mg/mL and CHI at 10 mg/mL.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Phylogenetic analysis using the Neighbor-Joining method demonstrated 100% relatedness to reference Colletotrichum gloeosporioides sequences from GenBank.
“Phylogenetic analysis using the Neighbor-Joining method further demonstrated 100% relatedness to reference sequences of C. gloeosporioides retrieved from GenBank (Fig. 4).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Chitosan at 15 mg/mL reduced mycelial growth of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides by 78.82% six days after inoculation compared with the control.
“At this concentration, CHI reduced the mycelial growth of C. gloeosporioides by 78.82% 6 days post-inoculation compared to the control.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“CHI achieved 78.82% inhibition of mycelial growth and 66.67% inhibition of conidia germination at 15 mg/mL.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
The chitosan-phenyllactic acid combination at 15 mg/mL plus 4 mg/mL completely inhibited conidia germination 12 hours after inoculation.
“PLA (4 mg/mL), the CHI-PLA (15 mg/ mL + 4 mg/mL) combination, and the positive control completely (100%) inhibited conidia germination 12 h post-inoculation”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The partial DNA sequences obtained after Sanger sequencing showed 100% homology with Colletotrichum gloeosporioides sequences in GenBank.
“The partial DNA sequences obtained after Sanger sequencing showed a 100% homology with C. gloeosporioides species DNA sequences present in the GenBank.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In this study, CHI failed to achieve complete inhibition even at 15 mg/mL, its highest tested concentration.
“In the present study, PLA at 4 mg/mL achieved complete inhibition of both radial mycelia growth and conidia germination of C. gloeosporioides in vitro, whereas CHI did not reach full inhibition even at its highest tested concentration (15 mg/mL).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The C. gloeosporioides isolates used in this study were correctly identified to species level using morphology and ITS sequences alone.
- Findingown data
PCR amplification with ITS1 and ITS4 primers produced amplicons of approximately 560 bp.
“PCR amplification with ITS1 and ITS4 primers produced amplicons of approximately 560 bp.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
At 15 mg/mL, CHI lowered mycelial growth by 78.82%.
“PLA at 4 mg/mL completely inhibited both mycelial growth and conidia germination of C. gloeosporioides, while CHI (15 mg/mL) reduced mycelial growth by 78.82%, and conidia germination by 66.67%.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The C. gloeosporioides isolates used in this study were correctly identified to species level using morphology and ITS sequences alone.
- Findingown data
This study showed that CHI and PLA, alone and together, markedly suppressed mycelial growth and conidia germination of C. gloeosporioides in vitro.
“This study demonstrated that CHI and PLA, both individually and in combination, significantly inhibited the mycelial growth and conidia germination of C. gloeosporioides, the anthracnose causal agent in avocados, under in vitro conditions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The C. gloeosporioides isolates used in this study were correctly identified to species level using morphology and ITS sequences alone.
- Findingcitation
CHI and PLA both inhibited C. gloeosporioides in vitro in a concentration-dependent manner.
“Both CHI and PLA exhibited a concentration-dependent inhibitory activity against C. gloeosporioides in vitro, aligning with previous findings (Bautista-Baños et al. 2003; Lavermicocca et al. 2003; Oliveira et al. 2017; Guimarães and Venancio 2018; Gao et al. 2024).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The C. gloeosporioides isolates used in this study were correctly identified to species level using morphology and ITS sequences alone.
- Findingown data
At 15 mg/mL, CHI lowered conidia germination by 66.67%.
“PLA at 4 mg/mL completely inhibited both mycelial growth and conidia germination of C. gloeosporioides, while CHI (15 mg/mL) reduced mycelial growth by 78.82%, and conidia germination by 66.67%.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The C. gloeosporioides isolates used in this study were correctly identified to species level using morphology and ITS sequences alone.
- Premisecitation
Chitosan concentrations of 1.5% and above can effectively control fungal growth.
“Research demonstrates that CHI concentrations of 1.5% and above can effectively control fungal growth (Bautista-Baños et al. 2003;Marques et al. 2016).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Higher chitosan concentrations may adversely affect fruit ripening by restricting gas exchange and causing physiological disorders.
“However, higher concentrations may adversely impact fruit ripening by restricting gas exchange and causing physiological disorders (Ali et al. 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ali et al. 2010 source
- Interpretationown data
Chitosan-phenyllactic acid mixtures are a promising and sustainable alternative to synthetic fungicides for managing postharvest anthracnose in avocados.
“These findings highlight CHI-PLA mixtures as a promising and sustainable alternative to synthetic fungicides for managing postharvest anthracnose in avocados.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: In vitro inhibition of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides by chitosan and phenyllactic acid is predictive of efficacy against postharvest anthracnose on avocado fruit.
- Interpretationreasoning
Such complexity often makes results differ from in vitro findings.
“These complexities often result in outcomes that differ from those observed under in vitro conditions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The in vitro additive interaction means CHI and PLA do not strongly boost each other's activity, as true synergy would.
“This additive interaction observed under in vitro conditions indicates that while both agents are effective together, they do not significantly amplify each other's activities as would be expected in a synergistic interaction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Li et al. (2017) demonstrated that PLA and CHI can interact through hydrogen bonds.
“Similarly, through investigation of the antioxidant and antimicrobial (on some bacterial strains and S. cerevisiae and P. expansum) activity of PLA-grafted-CHI, Li et al. (2017) demonstrated that PLA and CHI could also interact through hydrogen bonds.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li et al. 2017
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Study design and conductown data
Koch's postulates were confirmed by re-isolating the pathogen from symptomatic avocado fruits and re-identifying it morphologically.
“Koch's postulates were confirmed by re-isolating the pathogen from symptomatic avocado fruits and re-identifying them based on their morphological characteristics.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
FTIR, HNMR, and XRD studies indicate CHI and phenolic acids can form hydrogen bonds between CHI's hydroxyl or amine groups and the phenolic acid carboxyl group.
“Spectroscopic analyses (FTIR, HNMR and XRD) have shown that CHI and phenolic acid (such as gallic, vanillic, ferulic, salicylic acids) may interact through hydrogen bonds involving the hydroxyl or amine molecules of CHI and the carboxyl group of phenolic acid (Chatterjee et al. 2015;Wang et al. 2019;Liu et al. 2021).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationcitation
These studies indicate that PLA has potential as a potent antifungal agent.
“These studies highlight PLA's potential as a potent antifungal agent.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Cortés-Zavaleta et al. (2014) found the MIC of PLA for C. gloeosporioides to be 0.5 mg/mL.
“Similarly, Guimarães and Venancio (2018) reported complete inhibition of Penicillium nordicum at 8 mg/mL of PLA, while Cortés-Zavaleta et al. (2014) determined the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of PLA against C. gloeosporioides to be 0.5 mg/mL.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cortés-Zavaleta et al. 2014 source
- Premisecitation
Gao et al. (2024) found that 3 mg/mL PLA inhibited C. musae by 96.56%.
“Gao et al. (2024) reported 96.56% inhibition of C. musae at 3 mg/mL.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gao et al. 2024
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Oliveira et al. (2017) found that 10 mg/mL CHI completely inhibited radial mycelial growth in other Colletotrichum species.
“Additionally, Oliveira et al. (2017) reported 100% inhibition of radial mycelia growth on other Colletotrichum species at 10 mg/mL of CHI.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Oliveira et al. 2017 source
- Premisecitation
CHI's antifungal effect is mainly due to its cationic amino groups binding to anionic phospholipids in the fungal plasma membrane.
“CHI antifungal action is well-established and is mainly ascribed to its positively charged amino groups, which interact with the fungal plasma membrane's negatively charged phospholipids.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationown data
The findings suggest CHI-PLA mixtures could serve as a coating to manage avocado anthracnose.
“These results highlight the potential of CHI-PLA mixtures as a promising coating treatment to control anthracnose in avocados.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
This work is the first to test how a CHI-PLA combination acts against C. gloeosporioides.
“Therefore, this study is the first to investigate the efficacy of CHI and PLA combination against C. gloeosporioides.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Before this work, no published study had tested a CHI-PLA combination against C. gloeosporioides.
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 12
- May combine two claims. 22
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPrior work indicates that ITS sequence data alone cannot reliably identify species and that at least two to three genetic loci, such as GAPDH, ACT, and TUB2, are needed to differentiate accurately within the C. gloeosporioides complex.
“Previous studies highlighted the limitation of relying solely on ITS sequence data for species identification and emphasized the need to use at least 2 to 3 genetic loci (such as GAPDH, ACT, TUB2) for accurate differentiation within the C. gloeosporioides species complex (Damm et al. 2010;Weir et al. 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked- cites Damm et al. 2010 source
The Introduction’s “Systematics and identification” section describes distinct members of the C. gloeosporioides complex as having similar ITS sequences and reports successful species delimitation using eight genes, as well as a five-gene analysis. This supports the limitation of ITS alone and the value of multilocus analysis, but it does not establish that two to three loci suffice or specify GAPDH, ACT, and TUB2 for that purpose. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Weir et al. 2012 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
FindingcitationThe C. gloeosporioides isolate examined in this study was closely related to three other species in the C. gloeosporioides complex: C. fructicola, C. aenigma, and C. siamense, based on morphology and ITS sequences.
“In this study, C. gloeosporioides exhibited a close relationship with other Colletotrichum species such as C. fructicola, C. aenigma, and C. siamense, all of which are classified within the C. gloeosporioides species complex (Weir et al. 2012) due to their similar morphology and ITS sequences (Damm et al. 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked- cites Weir et al. 2012 source
- cites Damm et al. 2010 source
The Systematics and identification section (page not specified) says the C. gloeosporioides sensu lato complex is grouped by similar conidial morphology and ITS sequences, and it lists C. fructicola and C. siamense among its members. It does not mention C. aenigma or examine the citing study’s isolate, so it cannot support the full species-specific relationship claimed. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Rests on an assumption: The C. gloeosporioides isolates used in this study were correctly identified to species level using morphology and ITS sequences alone.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe antifungal activity of chitosan decreased when phenyllactic acid was added at low concentrations but improved as the phenyllactic acid concentration increased.
“The antifungal activity of CHI decreased when PLA was added at low concentrations, but this activity improved as the PLA concentration increased.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn this study, no CHI-PLA mixture gave complete inhibition, whereas PLA alone at 4 mg/mL did.
“Nevertheless, complete inhibition (100%) was not achieved in any of the combinations, unlike the effect observed with PLA at 4 mg/mL.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The C. gloeosporioides isolates used in this study were correctly identified to species level using morphology and ITS sequences alone.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe chitosan-phenyllactic acid combination caused visible deformation, specifically swelling, of conidia, which was not observed in the other treatments.
“In addition, the CHI-PLA combination caused visible deformation (swelling) of the conidia (Fig. 6B1), a phenomenon not observed in the other treatments.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn this study, low PLA levels lowered CHI's antifungal activity, while higher PLA levels raised it.
“Interestingly, the antifungal efficacy of CHI was reduced when combined with low concentrations of PLA but increased as PLA concentrations were raised.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The C. gloeosporioides isolates used in this study were correctly identified to species level using morphology and ITS sequences alone.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPhenyllactic acid is an organic acid and natural metabolite of lactic acid bacteria with antimicrobial activity and non-cytotoxicity.
“Phenyllactic acid (PLA) is an organic acid and natural metabolite of Lactic Acid Bacteria known for its antimicrobial activity and non-cytotoxicity (Rajanikar et al. 2021).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rajanikar et al. 2021 source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAnthracnose rot in avocado is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides species and reduces fruit quality and market value.
“anthracnose rot, caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides species, which affects negatively fruit quality and market value.”
- Also stated in: § Introduction · plain
“postharvest losses primarily arise from anthracnose disease, mainly caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, remain a significant challenge to the avocado industry.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kimaru et al. 2018b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Also stated in: § Introduction · plain
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPhenyllactic acid has shown potential to reduce anthracnose in bananas, suggesting that combining it with a coating material such as chitosan could offer synergistic protection against similar fungal infections.
“Recent studies have demonstrated PLA's potential in reducing anthracnose in bananas, suggesting that its combination with a coating material like CHI could offer synergistic protection against similar fungal infections (Gao et al. 2024).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gao et al. 2024
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationChitosan is a biodegradable polymer with antimicrobial effects and potential as an edible coating.
“Chitosan (CHI), a biodegradable polymer derived from chitin deacetylation, is known for its antimicrobial effects and potential as an edible coating (Li et al. 2024).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li et al. 2024
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPLA probably enters the cell membrane, dissociates inside, and releases protons, making the cell acidic and depolarizing its membrane.
“In contrast, PLA likely penetrates the cell membrane and dissociates intracellularly, releasing protons that acidify the cell and depolarize the membrane.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Guo et al. 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Ning et al. 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Rajanikar et al. 2021 source
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningBecause the treatments block conidial germination, they may act at different stages of pathogen development.
“Moreover, the treatments' ability to inhibit conidial germination demonstrates their potential to target different stages of pathogen development.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAli et al. (2010) found that 15 mg/mL CHI inhibited radial mycelial growth by 90% and conidia germination by 80%, with complete inhibition at 20 mg/mL.
“Similarly, Ali et al. (2010) observed 90% inhibition of radial mycelia growth and 80% inhibition of conidia germination at 15 mg/mL of CHI, with complete inhibition achieved at 20 mg/mL.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ali et al. 2010 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationIn Kenya, Kimaru et al. identified Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Colletotrichum boninense, and Pestalotiopsis microspora as anthracnose causal agents in avocado fruits in Murang'a county.
“In Kenya, for instance, Kimaru et al. (2018a) identified C. gloeosporioides, C. boninense, and Pestalotiopsis microspora as the anthracnose causal agents in avocado fruits in Murang'a county, Kenya.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kimaru et al. 2018a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationGuimarães and Venancio (2018) found that 8 mg/mL PLA completely inhibited Penicillium nordicum.
“Similarly, Guimarães and Venancio (2018) reported complete inhibition of Penicillium nordicum at 8 mg/mL of PLA, while Cortés-Zavaleta et al. (2014) determined the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of PLA against C. gloeosporioides to be 0.5 mg/mL.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Guimarães and Venancio 2018 source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationRecent iTRAQ proteomic work indicates PLA also interferes with mitochondrial energy metabolism and glucose breakdown, lowering energy supply and triggering cytochrome C release and apoptosis.
“Recent iTRAQ-based proteomic studies have revealed that PLA also disrupts mitochondrial energy metabolism and glucose catabolism, leading to reduced energy supply, cytochrome C release, and apoptosis (Guo et al. 2021;Ning et al. 2021;Fan et al. 2022;Zhang et al. 2024).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Guo et al. 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Ning et al. 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Fan et al. 2022 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningPostharvest use occurs in complex biological settings where treatment compounds, fruit tissues, and pathogens can interact and affect efficacy.
“Nevertheless, postharvest applications involve more complex biological environments, where interactions between the treatment compounds, fruit tissues, and pathogens may influence efficacy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationWhen PLA binds CHI, it may lower the number of free cationic amino groups on CHI, which could weaken CHI's antifungal activity.
“The interaction of PLA with CHI may reduce the number of cationic amino groups available in CHI, potentially decreasing its antifungal efficacy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenThe conidia germination assay counted 100 conidia per replicate and used three experimental replicates per treatment under a light microscope at X40 magnification.
“Germination inhibition was assessed by counting 100 conidia per replicate, using three experimental replicates for each treatment, under a light microscope at X40 magnification.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAli et al. (2010) also observed morphological changes in conidia 7 h after treatment with those CHI concentrations.
“The study also noted morphological changes in conidia following treatment with these CHI concentrations 7 h post incubation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ali et al. 2010 source
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationWith more PLA present, unbound PLA may enter fungal cells and act against them, as this study observed at higher PLA levels.
“However, as PLA concentrations increase, the free PLA that does not interact with CHI functional groups may penetrate fungal cells and exert its antifungal activity, as seen in this study with higher PLA concentrations (Li et al. 2017).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li et al. 2017
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationGao et al. (2024) reported that PLA controlled anthracnose disease in bananas.
“They found PLA effective in controlling anthracnose disease in bananas and suggested that its combination with a carrier material (like CHI) may improve its inhibitory potential.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gao et al. 2024
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationLi et al. (2024) found CHI plus Iturin-A acted additively in vitro but synergistically against C. gloeosporioides on mango.
“A similar additive effect was reported by Li et al. (2024), where CHI and Iturin-A, when combined, exhibited an additive effect in vitro but demonstrated synergistic effects when applied to control C. gloeosporioides on mangoes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li et al. 2024
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningBlocking conidial germination might stop disease progression in naturally infected fruit and improve postharvest disease management.
“This capability is particularly significant, as inhibiting conidial germination could prevent disease progression in naturally infected fruits, enhancing postharvest disease management strategies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenTukey's test was applied at the 95% confidence level to identify significant differences.
“Tukey's test was applied at 95% confidence level to identify significant differences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThat binding damages membrane integrity, leading to leakage of cell contents and death.
“This interaction disrupts membrane integrity, causing the leakage of intracellular components and cell death (Bautista-Baños et al. 2003;Oliveira et al. 2017).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe in vitro experiments used three experimental replicates per treatment and were repeated twice.
“The experiments consisted of three experimental replicates for each treatment and were repeated two times.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe resulting loss of electrochemical balance blocks essential enzymes and metabolic pathways, causing cell death.
“This disrupts the cell's electrochemical balance, leading to key enzyme and metabolic pathways essential for cell survival inhibition and, ultimately, cell death (Guo et al. 2021;Ning et al. 2021;Rajanikar et al. 2021;Fan et al. 2022;Li et al. 2022;Zhang et al. 2024).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Guo et al. 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Ning et al. 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Rajanikar et al. 2021 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationSome studies report synergy in vivo even when in vitro results were additive.
“Notably, some studies have reported synergistic effects emerging under in vivo conditions despite additive responses in vitro (Li et al. 2024).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li et al. 2024
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationBautista-Baños et al. (2003) found 25 mg/mL CHI fully inhibited C. gloeosporioides mycelial growth and 15 mg/mL caused notable conidia deformation.
“For instance, Bautista-Baños et al. (2003) reported complete inhibition of C. gloeosporioides mycelial growth at 25 mg/mL of CHI and significant conidia deformation at 15 mg/mL.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bautista-Baños et al. 2003 source
The paper relies on this without support.
In vitro inhibition of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides by chitosan and phenyllactic acid is predictive of efficacy against postharvest anthracnose on avocado fruit.
“These findings highlight CHI-PLA mixtures as a promising and sustainable alternative to synthetic fungicides for managing postharvest anthracnose in avocados.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The single Colletotrichum gloeosporioides isolate chosen for the in vitro tests represents the pathogen population responsible for avocado anthracnose in the study area.
“The C gloeosporioides isolate, which demonstrated high rapid growth and pathogenicity, was selected for the in vitro experiments.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Before this work, no published study had tested a CHI-PLA combination against C. gloeosporioides.
“To date, however, no studies have evaluated the efficacy of the CHI-PLA combination against C. gloeosporioides.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The C. gloeosporioides isolates used in this study were correctly identified to species level using morphology and ITS sequences alone.
“In this study, C. gloeosporioides exhibited a close relationship with other Colletotrichum species such as C. fructicola, C. aenigma, and C. siamense, all of which are classified within the C. gloeosporioides species complex (Weir et al. 2012) due to their similar morphology and ITS sequences (Damm et al. 2010).”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
CHI-15 mixtures do not improve as PLA concentration rises
MinorThe stated improvement with increasing PLA does not hold for the CHI-15 series: inhibition falls from 79.43% at PLA-1 to 62.12% at PLA-3, then rises only to 73.12% at PLA-4.
“The antifungal activity of CHI decreased when PLA was added at low concentrations, but this activity improved as the PLA concentration increased.”
“| CHI-15 + PLA-1 | 79.43 ± 0.78 a | 0.91 | Additive | | CHI-15 + PLA-2 | 68.03 ± 1..02 c | 0.75 | Additive | | CHI-15 + PLA-3 | 62.12 ± 0.65 d | 0.64 | Additive | | CHI-15 + PLA-4 | 73.12 ± 0.40 b | 0.73 | Additive |”
Cites
The publisher hasn’t deposited this paper’s reference list.
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- [14]14. Guo M, Y Kong, X Li, Z Du, X Fan, H Gong (2021). Analysis of sites of action of phenyllactic acid in Inhibiting Alternaria sp. Food Sci 42:51-56 https://doi.org/10.7506/spkx1002-6630-20210817-213 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Hamidou, H. A., Kimaru, S. K., & Owino, W. (2025) · Applied Food Research · doi:10.1016/j.afres.2025.101339 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Hamidou, H. A.
- Affiliations
- Pan African University Institute for Basic Sciences, Technology and Innovation (KE)
- Corresponding author
- Hamidou, Hamza Alassan
- Venue
- International Journal of Agriculture and Biology
- Publisher
- Friends Science Publishers
- Published
- 2025-06-29
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 04
- Pages
- 340412-340412
- ISSN
- 1560-8530 (ISSN-L)
- 1814-9596
- OpenAlex
- W4412372563
- Cited by
- 1
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1
- FWCI
- 0.95
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Agriculture and Biology (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- African Union
- African Union Commission
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Fungal Plant Pathogen Control
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Postharvest Quality and Shelf Life Management
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Biomaterials › Nanocomposite Films for Food Packaging
- Keywords
- chitosan, phenyllactic acid, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, anthracnose, avocado, postharvest disease control, antifungal activity, mycelial growth inhibition, fungicide alternatives, synergistic combination
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-09-28.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-09-28.
Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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