Interaction and the Conservation of Gender Inequality: Considering Employment
Abstract
How can we explain the persistence of gender hierarchy over transformations in its socioeconomic base? Part of the answer lies in the mediation of gender inequality by taken-for-granted interactional processes that rewrite inequality into new institutional arrangements. The problems of interacting cause actors to automatically sex-categorize others and, thus, to cue gender stereotypes that have various effects on interactional outcomes, usually by modifying the performance of other, more salient identities. Because changes in the status dimension of gender stereotypes lag behind changes in resource inequalities, interactional status processes can reestablish gender inequalities in new structural forms. Interactional sex categorization also biases the choice of comparison others, causing men and women to judge differently the rewards available to them. Operating in workplace relations, these processes conserve inequality by driving the gender-labeling of jobs, constructing people as gender-interested actors, contributing to employers' discriminatory preferences, and mediating men's and women's perceptions of alternatives and their willingness to settle for given job outcomes.
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Valuation is a social process influenced by gender status beliefs, which privilege men and 'masculine' attributes and objects over their feminine counterparts.
“Valuation is a social process and as such will be influenced by gender status beliefs, which privilege men and 'masculine' attributes and objects over their feminine counterparts (Ridgeway 1997).”
From Gendering Reciprocity (2013) · cites this paper as Ridgeway 1997
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What's in the “old boys” network? Accessing social capital in gendered and racialized networks
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“According to status characteristics theory (Berger et al., 1972; Ridgeway, 1997), people engage in an unconscious process socio-cognitive stereotyping, which involves labeling and categorizing others based on personal characteristics such as gender and race.”
BackgroundGender Socialization and Identity Theory
Carter, M. (2014) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci3020242 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
“Identities based on gender affect the basic rules that people use to frame interaction [40,66]; the fact that gender can emerge in person, role, and social (or group) identities shows how powerful perceptions of gender are [67]:”
BackgroundThe fatiguing effects of camera use in virtual meetings: A within-person field experiment.
Shockley, K. M., Gabriel, A. S., Robertson, D., Rosen, C. C., Chawla, N., Ganster, M. L., & Ezerins, M. E. (2021) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000948 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
`Mobilizing Masculinities': Women's Experiences of Men at
Martin, P. Y. (2001) · Organization · doi:10.1177/135050840184003 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Organizational Approaches to Inequality: Inertia, Relative Power, and Environments
Stainback, K., Tomaskovic-Devey, D., & Skaggs, S. (2010) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-120014 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Unsettling Universities' Incongruous, Gendered Bureaucratic Structures: A Case-study Approach
Bird, S. R. (2010) · Gender Work and Organization · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2009.00510.x · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Tomaskovic‐Devey, D., Thomas, M. E., & Johnson, K. R. (2005) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/431779 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Cha, Y. (2010) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122410365307 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Networks of Opportunity: Gender, Race, and Job Leads
McDonald, S., Lin, N., & Ao, D. (2009) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.2009.56.3.385 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
From sex roles to gender structure
Risman, B. J., & Davis, G. (2013) · Current Sociology · doi:10.1177/0011392113479315 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
“Ridgeway and her colleagues (Ridgeway, 1991, 1997, 2001, 2011; Ridgeway and Correll, 2004) show convincingly that the status expectations attached to gender and race categories are crosssituational.”
BackgroundWhy Should Women Get Less? Evidence on the Gender Pay Gap from Multifactorial Survey Experiments
Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., & Sauer, C. (2017) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122416683393 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
An organizational approach to undoing gender: The unlikely case of offshore oil platforms
Ely, R. J., & MEYERSON, D. E. (2010) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2010.09.002 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Gendering the Job: Networks and Recruitment at a Call Center
Fernandez, R. M., & Sosa, M. L. (2005) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/497257 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
“The fact that the interviewing process seems to produce the largest boost in the percentage of women is consistent with the idea that it is the interaction with the candidate that seems to activate the stereotypical conception of gender (Correll 2001, 2004; Ridgeway 1997).”
ResultHome-to-Job and Job-to-Home Spillover: The Impact of Company Policies and Workplace Culture
Mennino, S. F., Rubin, B. A., & Brayfield, A. A. (2005) · Sociological Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2005.00006.x · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Taylor, V. A. (1999) · Gender & Society · doi:10.1177/089124399013001002 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Cech, E. A., & Blair‐Loy, M. (2010) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.2010.57.3.371 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
Sex Segregation, Labor Process Organization, and Gender Earnings Inequality
Tomaskovic‐Devey, D., & Skaggs, S. L. (2002) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/344214 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
“We agree with Ridgeway (1997) that gender and gender devaluation are interactional accomplishments and so must take place in concrete social settings (i.e., the workplaces where labor processes are negotiated, wages are set, and people allocated to jobs).”
BackgroundCracking the Glass Cages? Restructuring and Ascriptive Inequality at Work
Kalev, A. (2009) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/597175 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Gender, Race, and the Shadow Structure
McGuire, G. M. (2002) · Gender & Society · doi:10.1177/0891243202016003003 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Wenger, É., & Wenger-Trayner, B. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677431 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Cross-Level Effects of Workplace Diversity on Sales Performance and Pay
Joshi, A., Liao, H., & Jackson, S. E. (2006) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2006.21794664 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
“The presence of more women and people of color at managerial levels should assure more equal access to resources (Ridgeway, 1997), but in organizations with low representations of female or ethnic minority man agers, organizational hierarchies accentuate status differences (Wharton, 1992).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialHierarchical Rank and Women’s Organizational Mobility: Glass Ceilings in Corporate Law Firms
Gorman, E. H., & Kmec, J. A. (2009) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/595950 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Britton, D. M. (2016) · Gender & Society · doi:10.1177/0891243216681494 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
“Drawing attention to such moments highlights gender (rather than allowing it to fade into the background), which at the same time activates a host of negative status beliefs about femininity (Ridgeway 1997, 2008, 2011; Ridgeway and Correll 2004).”
BackgroundCreating Status of Women Reports: Institutional Housekeeping as "Women's Work"
Bird, S. R., Litt, J. S., & Wang, Y. (2004) · NWSA Journal · doi:10.2979/nws.2004.16.1.194 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Creating Status Characteristics
Webster, M., & Hysom, S. J. (1998) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2657554 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Phillips, D. J. (2005) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2189/asqu.2005.50.3.440 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
“…increases the relevance of group-level research on the emergence and persistence of gender hierarchies (Berger, Rosenholtz, and Zelditch, 1980; Ridgeway, 1997; Lucas, 2003; Troyer, 2004) because small firms are closest to the laboratory groups in which the replication of routines and gender…”
BackgroundScaling Down Inequality: Rating Scales, Gender Bias, and the Architecture of Evaluation
Rivera, L. A., & Tilcsik, A. (2019) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122419833601 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
“Just as the way people evaluate men and women varies based on the structure of the task at hand (see Ridgeway 1997), we argue that the design of tools used to assess merit—or what we term the architecture of evaluation—can influence the degree to which gender stereotypes are expressed in…”
BackgroundMethodBegeny, C. T., Ryan, M. K., Moss-Racusin, C. A., & Ravetz, G. (2020) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aba7814 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Who’s the Boss? Explaining Gender Inequality in Entrepreneurial Teams
Yang, T., & Aldrich, H. E. (2014) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122414524207 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
“We believe the key mechanism explaining gender inequalities in naturally occurring groups is the “mediating interactional mechanism” proposed by Ridgeway (1997).”
BackgroundGender Inequality and Time Allocations Among Academic Faculty
Winslow, S. (2010) · Gender & Society · doi:10.1177/0891243210386728 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Kapilashrami, A., Hill, S., & Meer, N. (2015) · Social Theory & Health · doi:10.1057/sth.2015.16 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Owning the Code: Status Closure in Distributed Groups
Metiu, A. M. (2006) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.1060.0195 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
“The monopolization of opportunities by groups of higher status at the expense of other groups, a phenomenon identified by Weber (1978) and called closure by sociologists (Parkin 1974, Murphy 1988), is an important hurdle to developing intergroup cooperation.”
BackgroundTowards a Topology of ‘Doing Gender’: An Analysis of Empirical Research and Its Challenges
Nentwich, J. C., & Kelan, E. (2013) · Gender Work and Organization · doi:10.1111/gwao.12025 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
“Whatever is gendered ‘feminine’ tends to be devalued; whatever is gendered ‘masculine’ receives higher status, and is perceived as more professional and as representing competence (Heilman, 2001; Ridgeway, 1997).”
BackgroundJackson, S. E., & Joshi, A. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12169-020 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Social Change and The Persistence of Sex Typing: 1974-1997
Lueptow, L. B., Garovich, L., & Lueptow, M. B. (2001) · Social Forces · doi:10.1353/sof.2001.0077 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Charles, M. (2003) · Acta Sociologica · doi:10.1177/0001699303464001 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
“See also Connell (1987), Chafetz (1988), Epstein (1988), Ridgeway (1997), and Bourdieu (2001) on the relationship between gender roles and male dominance.”
BackgroundInfluentialInequality, Institutions and Organizations
Amis, J., Munir, K. A., Lawrence, T. B., Hirsch, P. M., & McGahan, A. M. (2018) · Organization Studies · doi:10.1177/0170840618792596 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
“…towards recognising gender as a multi-level system of disadvantage which includes: at a macro-level, socio-economic disadvantages and cultural norms; at a meso-level, interactional practises within social institutions; and at a micro-level, internalised traits and identities (Ridgeway, 1997, 2014).”
BackgroundWomen Are Teachers, Men Are Professors: A Study of Student Perceptions
Miller, J., & Chamberlin, M. S. (2000) · Teaching Sociology · doi:10.2307/1318580 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
The Relational Generation of Workplace Inequalities
Tomaskovic‐Devey, D. (2014) · Social Currents · doi:10.1177/2329496513514032 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
A multilevel, complexity theory approach to understanding gender bias in leadership
Hogue, M., & Lord, R. G. (2007) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.04.006 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
“…from a number of perspectives, including socialization and role development (Eagly & Karau, 2002), the development of gender-related social status (Ridgeway, 1997; Ridgeway & Balkwell, 1997), and cognitive processes related to social categorization (Heilman, Block, Martell, & Simon, 1989; Lord &…”
BackgroundHill, A., Upadhyay, A., & Beekun, R. I. (2014) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.2274 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Great Divides: The Cultural, Cognitive, and Social Bases of the Global Subordination of Women
Epstein, C. F. (2007) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240707200101 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Occupational Sex Composition and the Gendered Availability of Workplace Support
Taylor, C. J. (2010) · Gender & Society · doi:10.1177/0891243209359912 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Don’t mention it: Why people don’t share job information, when they do, and why it matters
Marin, A. (2011) · Social Networks · doi:10.1016/j.socnet.2011.11.002 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
“Research (Ridgeway 1997) suggests that people are more likely to rely on gender stereotypes when more salient information is unavailable, suggesting that stereotypes may be most activated with weak ties, about whom information holders may know little, and in occupations with no specific training…”
BackgroundDiversity on Corporate Boards: How Much Difference Does Difference Make?Preprint
Rhode, D. L., & Packel, A. K. (2010) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1685615 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
The Parity Penalty in Life Course Perspective
Abendroth, A., Huffman, M. L., & Treas, J. (2014) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122414545986 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Bursell, M. (2014) · European Sociological Review · doi:10.1093/esr/jcu047 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Work Uncertainty and the Promotion of Professional Women: The Case of Law Firm Partnership
Gorman, E. H. (2006) · Social Forces · doi:10.1353/sof.2007.0004 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Leuze, K., & Strauß, S. (2016) · Work Employment and Society · doi:10.1177/0950017015624402 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
“In contrast, cultural explanations point out the importance of socially shared stereotypes about male and female traits and skills (Charles and Bradley, 2009), which are internalized during childhood and reproduced by everyday interactions between (adult) women and men (Ridgeway, 1997).”
BackgroundSoliciting Resources from Others: An Integrative Review
Lim, J. H., Tai, K., Bamberger, P. A., & Morrison, E. W. (2019) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2018.0034 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
- Authors
- Ridgeway, C. L.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ridgeway, Cecilia L.
- ORCID
- Ridgeway, Cecilia L.
- Venue
- American Sociological Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 1997-04
- Volume
- 62
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 218
- ISSN
- 0003-1224 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2091725322
- Cited by
- 939
- References
- 61
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 63 · 2019: 44 · 2018: 48 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 45 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 39
- FWCI
- 28.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Sociological Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Diversity and Inequality
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Employment, Labor, and Gender Studies
- Keywords
- gender inequality, gender stereotypes, interaction processes, sex categorization, gender hierarchy, employment, employment discrimination, gender pay gap, job choice
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