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Cited by 546Personality Traits and PsychologyDecision-Making and Behavioral EconomicsExperimental Behavioral Economics Studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 707 of the 875 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 43 of the 365 sources its claims cite were checked for support.

Personality Psychology and Economics

Open access
Almlund, Mathilde, Duckworth, Angela Lee, Heckman, James, Kautz, Tim·2011·National Bureau of Economic Research
DOI 10.3386/w16822
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Abstract

This paper explores the power of personality traits both as predictors and as causes of academic and economic success, health, and criminal activity. Measured personality is interpreted as a construct derived from an economic model of preferences, constraints, and information. Evidence is reviewed about the situational specificity of personality traits and preferences. The biological and evolutionary origins of personality traits are explored. Personality traits are positively correlated over the life cycle, but are not fixed and can be altered by experience and investment.

Overview

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3386/w16822

Cites

707 of 707 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Verification

Claims the paper makes

43 of 365 cited sources checked · 23 supported · 1 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

Show all 426 claims

  • Probably not a substantial claim. 190
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 155
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 3
311 of 311

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There remains a substantial imbalance in the scholarly and policy literatures in the emphasis placed on cognitive ability compared to other traits.

    “However, there remains a substantial imbalance in the scholarly and policy literatures in the emphasis placed on cognitive ability compared to other traits.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Personality traits are treated as endowments, and choices are determined by personality traits and other factors as they affect productivity in skills.

    “Personality traits are treated as endowments, and choices are determined by personality traits and other factors as they affect productivity in skills.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Effort is divisible and fixed in supply.

    “Effort is assumed to be divisible and fixed in supply.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Effort can be a vector (time, mental energy, attention), and it is a divisible private good with the feature that the more that is applied to task j, the less is available for all other tasks at any point in time.

    “Effort can be a vector (time, mental energy, attention), and it is assumed to be a divisible private good with the feature that the more that is applied to task j, the less is available for all other tasks at any point in time.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    At the current level of generality, all traits can potentially affect productivity in all tasks.

    “At the current level of generality, all traits can potentially affect productivity in all tasks.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Construct validity has been established.

    “Assuming that construct validity has been established”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Situations affect productivity by affecting the set of possible actions and hence the action taken.

    “These situations are assumed to affect productivity by affecting the set of possible actions and hence the action taken.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The arguments of equation (1) are additively separable.

    “We assume additive separability of the arguments of equation ( 1).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The agent's response functions exist.

    “The agent's response functions (assumed to exist) are”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    At any point in time, traits are endowments.

    “At any point in time, traits are endowments.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The situation h is fixed if agents cannot choose the situation; for simplicity, this case is analyzed.

    “h is fixed if agents cannot choose the situation.For simplicity, we analyze this case.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The factor T_n,l is statistically independent of the measurement errors.

    “The factor , n l T is assumed to be statistically independent of the”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Different factors are independent.

    “Different factors are assumed to be independent ( , n l T independent of , n l T  for l l   ).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Measurement errors are mutually independent within and across constructs.

    “The measurement errors (or”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The measurement errors are independent of T_n and mutually independent within and across constructs.

    “The , q n l  are assumed to be independent of n T and mutually independent within and across constructs (l and l are two constructs).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Subjects are unfamiliar with Raven Progressive Matrices visual puzzles.

    “However, the assumption that subjects are unfamiliar with such puzzles is not typically tested.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Measurements on different behaviors and assessments are generated by common traits.

    “These include repeated measurements on the same types of assessment mechanisms as well as measurements on different behaviors and assessments that are assumed to be generated by common traits.81”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    A factor T_l accounts for the intercorrelations among items or tests within a construct l.

    “(b) A factor l T is assumed to account for the intercorrelations among the items or tests within a construct l .”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Each Big Five factor is a composite of distinct facets.

    “Given that each Big Five factor is a composite of distinct facets, the predictive validities are diluted when analyses consider only factor-level aggregate scores.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Five-Factor model is largely silent about motivation.

    “The Five-Factor model is largely silent about motivation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Typically, more than 60 percent of proposers give positive amounts, averaging 20 percent of the sum in dictator games.

    “Typically, more than 60 percent of proposers give positive amounts, averaging 20 percent of the sum.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Studies typically find that receivers decline if offered less than 20 percent in ultimatum games.

    “Studies typically find that receivers decline if offered less than 20 percent.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Caring and altruism decrease with social distance.

    “Caring and altruism have been shown to decrease with social distance.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    People typically care more about themselves than about others, and they are less altruistic the less well they know other people.

    “People typically care more about themselves than about others, and they are less altruistic the less well they know other people.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Preferences govern the choices that shape life.

    “since preferences govern the choices that shape life”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Personality measures used across studies can be cast into Big Five categories.

    “We attempt to cast all measures into Big Five categories.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Risk-aversion is constant during the period 2000-2005 for the Caliendo, Fossen and Kritikos study.

    “assuming that risk-aversion is constant during this period.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Substantial but temporary influence of environment is assumed in the Dickens-Flynn model reconciling high heritability of IQ and massive IQ gains between generations.

    “Substantial but temporary influence of environment is a basic assumption of the Dickens-Flynn model reconciling the high heritability of IQ and massive gains of IQ between generations (Dickens and Flynn [2001]).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Environmental influence can be amplified by a social multiplier effect: smarter individuals create for one another an enriched environment, which in turn increases intelligence, and so on.

    “A second crucial assumption is that environmental influence can be amplified by a “social multiplier” effect: smarter individuals create for one another an enriched environment, which in turn increases intelligence, and so on.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Each component of traits and investment can be represented by a scalar, as can environment.

    “They assume that each component of v  and v IN can be represented by a scalar, as can environment v h .”
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Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentt(60) = 10.67reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(60) = 10.67,p < .001”

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Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.

Cited works that were retracted

Works this paper cites that were later retracted, from the retraction notices publishers deposit. Major when the notice came out before this paper was published.

  • Cites a retracted work: 10.1016/0022-4405(78)90004-3

    Major

    The cited work was retracted on 1978-09-01 (notice 10.1016/0022-4405(78)90004-3), before this paper was published (2011-02). Its authors could have known.

    Cited work 10.1016/0022-4405(78)90004-3 · retracted 1978-09-01 · notice 10.1016/0022-4405(78)90004-3 · this paper published 2011-02

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Citations

Cites

1 retracted

Flagged first, then by citations

Show all 875 references

168 of the 875 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 20

  1. [64]Bowen, William G., Chingos, Matthew M. and McPherson, Michael S. (2009a). "Educational Attainment: Overall Trends, Disparities, and the Public Universities We Study." in Crossing the Finish Line: Completing College at America's Public Universities. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press: 1-19.
  2. [65]Bowen, William G., Chingos, Matthew M. and McPherson, Michael S. (2009b). "Test Scores and High School Grades as Predictors." in Crossing the Finish Line: Completing College at America's Public Universities. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press: 112-133.
  3. [73]Browning, Martin, Hansen, Lars Peter and Heckman, James J. (1999). "Micro Data and General Equilibrium Models." in Handbook of Macroeconomics. J. B. Taylor and M. Woodford, eds., Elsevier. 1A: 543-633.
  4. [74]Buck, R. Creighton (2003). Advanced Calculus. Long Grove, IL, Waveland Press, Inc.
  5. [93]Cattan, Sarah (2010). "Heterogeneity and Selection in the Labor Market." PhD Thesis, Economics Department, University of Chicago.
  6. [164]Durlak, Joseph A., Weissberg, Roger P., Dymnicki, Allison B., Taylor, Rebecca D. and Schellinger, Kriston B. (in press). "The Impact of Enhancing Students' Social and Emotional Learning: A Meta-Analysis of School-Based Universal Interventions." Child Development.
  7. [193]Freud, Sigmund (1909). Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (the Standard Edition). New York, NY, W. W. Norton & Company.
  8. [218]Gough, Harrison G. (1964). "Graduation from High School as Predicted from the California Psychological Inventory." Psychology in the Schools 3(3): 208-216.
  9. [235]Hansen, Lars Peter (2005). "Comment On "Exotic Preferences for Macroeconomics" By D. K. Backus, B. R. Routledge and S. E. Zin." in NBER Macroeconomics Annual. M. Gertler and K. Rogoff, eds. Cambridge, MA, MIT Press: 391-405.
  10. [236]Hansen, Lars Peter and Sargent, Thomas J. (2008). Robustness. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press.
  11. [248]Heckman, James J., Humphries, John Eric and Mader, Nicholas (2010). "The Ged." in Handbook of the Economics of Education. E. A. Hanushek, S. Machin and L. Wößmann, eds. Amsterdam, Elsevier: Forthcoming.
  12. [286]Jackson, Douglas Northrup (1974). Personality Research Form Manual. Goshen, N.Y, Research Psychologists Press.
  13. [302]Kern, Margaret L. and Friedman, Howard S. (2008). "Do Conscientious Individuals Live Longer?" Health Psychology 27(5): 505-512.
  14. [336]Lillard, Angeline and Else-Quest, Nicole (2006). "The Early Years: Evaluating Montessori." Science 313(5795): 1893-1894.
  15. [352]Martin, Roy P. (1989). "Activity Level, Distractibility, and Persistence: Critical Characteristics in Early Schooling." in Temperament in Childhood. G. A. Kohnstamm, J. E. Bates and M. K. Rothbart, eds. Chichester, England, John Wiley and Sons Ltd.: 451-461.
  16. [364]McCrae, Robert R. and Costa, Paul T. (1990). Personality in Adulthood. New York, Guilford Press.
  17. [433]Raudenbush, Stephen W. and Bryk, Anthony S. (2001). Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods (Advanced Quantitative Techniques in the Social Sciences) Sage Publications, Inc.
  18. [525]Sticht, Thomas G. (1995). "The Military Experience and Workplace Literacy: A Review and Synthesis for Policy and Practice." National Center on Adult Literacy, University of Pennsylvania Working paper, TR94-01.
  19. [529]Sylva, Kathy (1997). "The Quest for Quality in Curriculum." in Lasting Differences: The High/Scope Preschool Curriculum Comparison Study through Age 23. L. J. Schweinhart and D. P. Weikart, eds. Ypsilanti, High/Scope Press: 89-93.
  20. [540]Valiente, Carlos, Lemery-Chalfant, Kathryn and Castro, Kimberly S. (2007). "Children's Effortful Control and Academic Competence." Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 53(1): 1-25.

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Metadata

Authors
Almlund, M., Duckworth, A. L., Heckman, J., & Kautz, T.
Affiliations
University College Dublin (IE)
ORCID
Venue
National Bureau of Economic Research
Publisher
National Bureau of Economic Research
Published
2011-02
DOI
10.3386/w16822
OpenAlex
W2132319517
Cited by
540
References
875
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 43 · 2019: 41 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 65 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 25
Type
report
Language
en
Open access
Locations
National Bureau of Economic Research (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • Spencer Foundation
  • American Bar Foundation
  • University of Chicago
  • J.B. and M.K. Pritzker Family Foundation
  • Institute for New Economic Thinking (NIH R01-HD054702)
  • University College Dublin
  • National Institutes of Health (NIH-R01)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
  • Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
Keywords
personality traits, academic performance, health outcomes, criminal behavior, situational specificity, preference heterogeneity, personality assessment, cognitive ability, personality interventions, poverty, socioeconomic deprivation

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