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The pathophysiology of osteoporosis in obesity and type 2 diabetes in aging women and men: The mechanisms and roles of increased bone marrow adiposity
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Osteoporosis is defined as a systemic skeletal disease characterized by decreased bone mass and micro-architectural deterioration leading to increased fracture risk. Osteoporosis incidence increases with age in both post-menopausal women and aging men. Among other important contributing factors to bone fragility observed in osteoporosis, that also affect the elderly population, are metabolic disturbances observed in obesity and Type 2 Diabetes (T2D). These metabolic complications are associated with impaired bone homeostasis and a higher fracture risk. Expansion of the Bone Marrow Adipose Tissue (BMAT), at the expense of decreased bone formation, is thought to be one of the key pathogenic mechanisms underlying osteoporosis and bone fragility in obesity and T2D. Our review provides a summary of mechanisms behind increased Bone Marrow Adiposity (BMA) during aging and highlights the pre-clinical and clinical studies connecting obesity and T2D, to BMA and bone fragility in aging osteoporotic women and men.
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“As aging-related osteoporosis typically features low bone mass, microarchitectural alterations and bone marrow adipose tissue expansion40–42, our findings suggest that AD mice at a younger age recapitulate an aged skeletal phenotype.”
From Serum amyloid P secreted by bone marrow adipocytes drives skeletal amyloidosis (2025) · cites this paper as [40]
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“Frontiers in Endocrinology 05 BMAT formation evaluated by measurement of BMAT volume, BMAd size and number (70, 92–98), which was correlated with increased, unchanged, or decreased BMD in mice depending on the employed diabetic model (T1D or T2D) (70, 71, 94, 95, 99), but associated with a higher risk of fractures.”
MethodSenescence‐associated intrinsic mechanisms of osteoblast dysfunctions
Kassem, M., & Marie, P. (2011) · Aging Cell · doi:10.1111/j.1474-9726.2011.00669.x · Cited by 228 · cited 1×
“Osteoporosis is primarily attributed to aging and sex-steroid deficiency, which at the cellular level leads to increased bone resorption by osteoclasts and decreased bone formation by osteoblasts (6, 7).”
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Kajkenova, O., Lecka‐Czernik, B., Gubrij, I. B., Hauser, S. P., Takahashi, K., PARFITT, A. M., Jilka, R. L., Manolagas, S. C., & Lipschitz, D. A. (1997) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1359/jbmr.1997.12.11.1772 · Cited by 226 · cited 1×
“microenvironment, leading to compromised bone formation and decreased bone mass (30).”
BackgroundBone marrow fat content in the elderly: A reversal of sex difference seen in younger subjects
Griffith, J., Yeung, D., Ma, H. T., Leung, J., Kwok, T., & Leung, P. (2012) · Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1002/jmri.23619 · Cited by 226 · cited 2×
“Frontiers in Endocrinology 04 An interesting question that has been raised is whether the biological sex has an impact on the expansion of BMAT during aging? Griffith et al, investigated BMD and BMAT in the lumbar spine of 259 healthy subjects (145 females, 114 males; age range: 62-90 years) using MR spectroscopy of L…”
BackgroundMethodGoulding, A., & Taylor, R. (1998) · Calcified Tissue International · doi:10.1007/s002239900557 · Cited by 220
Tencerova, M., Figeac, F., Ditzel, N., Taipaleenmäki, H., Nielsen, T., & Kassem, M. (2018) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1002/jbmr.3408 · Cited by 218 · cited 4×
“Frontiers in Endocrinology 05 BMAT formation evaluated by measurement of BMAT volume, BMAd size and number (70, 92–98), which was correlated with increased, unchanged, or decreased BMD in mice depending on the employed diabetic model (T1D or T2D) (70, 71, 94, 95, 99), but associated with a higher risk of fractures.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationAntiresorptive therapies for osteoporosis: a clinical overview
Chen, J. S., & Sambrook, P. N. (2011) · Nature Reviews Endocrinology · doi:10.1038/nrendo.2011.146 · Cited by 213
Baxter-Jones, A., Kontulainen, S., Faulkner, R., & Bailey, D. (2008) · Bone · doi:10.1016/j.bone.2008.07.245 · Cited by 213
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Effects of estrogen therapy on bone marrow adipocytes in postmenopausal osteoporotic women
Syed, F., Oursler, M., Hefferanm, T. E., Peterson, J., Riggs, B., & Khosla, S. (2008) · Osteoporosis International · doi:10.1007/s00198-008-0574-6 · Cited by 207
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“Along with this finding, several clinical studies including ours have noted reduced bone turnover in patients with metabolic diseases (71, 103).”
ResultThe Role and Mechanism of SIRT1 in Resveratrol-regulated Osteoblast Autophagy in Osteoporosis Rats
Yang, X., Jiang, T., Wang, Y., & Guo, L. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-44766-3 · Cited by 201
State of the art in osteoporosis risk assessment and treatment
Liu, J., Curtis, E. M., Cooper, C. C., & Harvey, N. C. (2019) · Journal of Endocrinological Investigation · doi:10.1007/s40618-019-01041-6 · Cited by 198 · cited 1×
“Fractures, due to osteoporosis, require hospitalization and increase risk of mortality by 20%, and in 50% of the cases, result in chronic disability (3).”
BackgroundBone Fractures and Hypoglycemic Treatment in Type 2 Diabetic Patients
Monami, M., Cresci, B., Colombini, A., Pala, L., Balzi, D., Gori, F., Chiasserini, V., Marchionni, N., Rotella, C. M., & Mannucci, E. (2008) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc07-1736 · Cited by 194
DNA damage and senescence in osteoprogenitors expressing Osx1 may cause their decrease with age
Kim, H., Chang, J., Shao, L., Han, L., Iyer, S., Manolagas, S. C., O'Brien, C. A., Jilka, R. L., Zhou, D., & Almeida, M. (2017) · Aging Cell · doi:10.1111/acel.12597 · Cited by 192 · cited 3×
“BMSCs obtained from old mice also exhibited increased expression of SASP markers, leading to increased osteoclast formation, as well as increased expression of the adipogenic transcription factor PPAR-g (45).”
BackgroundObesity in menopause - our negligence or an unfortunate inevitability
Kozakowski, J., Gietka-Czernel, M., Leszczyńska, D., & Majos, A. (2017) · Menopausal Review · doi:10.5114/pm.2017.68594 · Cited by 189
The Role of Vitamin D in the Aging Adult
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High Fat Diet-Induced Animal Model of Age-associated Obesity and Osteoporosis
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“Another question that has been raised recently is whether gender-affirming interventions have an impact on bone microstructure and BMA? Gender-affirming interventions using hormone therapy or surgery aim to align the physical characteristics with an individual’s gender identity (85).”
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“In addition, it is shown that lumbar spine BMD is inversely associated with the lumbar adiposity in adults with morbid obesity, and that morbid obesity and T2D exhibits a higher BMA than nondiabetic controls of similar weight (98).”
BackgroundFOXP1 controls mesenchymal stem cell commitment and senescence during skeletal aging
Li, H., Liu, P., Xu, S., Li, Y., Dekker, J. D., Li, B., Fan, Y., Zhang, Z., Hong, Y., Yang, G., et al. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci89511 · Cited by 180 · cited 1×
“Mouse genetic studies had shown that conditional depletion of Foxp1 in BMSCs leads to premature aging, bone loss, and increased BMA via Foxp1 interactions with different members of C/EBP family proteins, such as C/EBP b/d, which are key modulators of adipogenesis (38).”
BackgroundZinman, B., Haffner, S. M., Herman, W. H., Holman, R. R., Lachin, J. M., Kravitz, B. G., Paul, G., Jones, N. C., Aftring, R. P., Viberti, G. C., et al. (2009) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2009-0572 · Cited by 180
Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors and Bone Fractures
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McColm, J., Hu, L.-J., Womack, T., Tang, C.-C., & Chiang, A. Y. (2014) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1002/jbmr.2092 · Cited by 173
Editorial: Cytokines, Estrogen, and Postmenopausal Osteoporosis-The Second Decade.
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“Changes in BMA during aging in males and females 145 females, 114 males; age range (62-90) years.”
BackgroundBone quality changes associated with aging and disease: a review
Boskey, A., & Imbert, L. (2017) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13572 · Cited by 163
Doucette, C. R., Horowitz, M., Berry, R., MacDougald, O., Anunciado-Koza, R., Koza, R. A., & Rosen, C. J. (2015) · Journal of Cellular Physiology · doi:10.1002/jcp.24954 · Cited by 163 · cited 2×
“Changes in BMA during aging in males and females 145 females, 114 males; age range (62-90) years.”
BackgroundMethodAlendronate Has an Anabolic Effect on Bone Through the Differentiation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells
Duque, G., & Rivas, D. (2007) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1359/jbmr.070701 · Cited by 156
Calcium Supplementation Suppresses Bone Turnover During Weight Reduction in Postmenopausal Women
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The Bones of Children With Obesity
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Cigarette smoking, obesity, and bone mass
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Direct and Indirect Estrogen Actions on Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts
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“Changes in BMA during aging in males and females 145 females, 114 males; age range (62-90) years.”
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Is obesity in women protective against osteoporosis?
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“Changes in BMA during aging in males and females 145 females, 114 males; age range (62-90) years.”
BackgroundThe skeletal cell‐derived molecule sclerostin drives bone marrow adipogenesis
Fairfield, H. E., Falank, C. R., Harris, E., DeMambro, V., McDonald, M. M., Pettitt, J. A., Mohanty, S. T., Croucher, P. I., Krämer, I., Kneissel, M., et al. (2017) · Journal of Cellular Physiology · doi:10.1002/jcp.25976 · Cited by 140
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“Bone growth and maintenance of the skeleton is regulated via different endocrine factors (hormones) such as estrogens and androgens (49, 50).”
BackgroundChanges in Skeletal Integrity and Marrow Adiposity during High-Fat Diet and after Weight Loss
Scheller, E. L., Khoury, B. M., Moller, K. L., Wee, N. K. Y., Khandaker, S., Kozloff, K. M., Abrishami, S., Zamarron, B. F., & Singer, K. (2016) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2016.00102 · Cited by 137 · cited 2×
“showed lower bone mass acquisition and greater increases in BMAT indices in Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming (TGNC) youth after 12 months of pubertal suppression with gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists (87).”
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“Gradual reduction in the testosterone levels in aging men are associated with reduction in bone mass (60, 61), and osteoblast dysfunction (62).”
BackgroundAlmeida, M., Martín-Millán, M., Ambrogini, E., Bradsher, R., Han, L., Chen, X.-D., Roberson, P., Weinstein, R., O'Brien, C. A., Jilka, R., et al. (2009) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1359/jbmr.091017 · Cited by 126 · cited 1×
“Estrogen is involved in molecular signaling in bone and regulation of BMAds (53–55) as estrogen is a positive regulator of osteogenesis through activation of estrogen receptor (ER)-dependent cytoplasmic kinases, BMPs and Wnt signaling (56, 57).”
BackgroundKelly, K. A., & Gimble, J. (1998) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/endo.139.5.5970 · Cited by 126
Tencerova, M., Frost, M., Figeac, F., Nielsen, T., Ali, D., Lauterlein, J., Andersen, T. L., Haakonsson, A., Rauch, A., Madsen, J. S., et al. (2019) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2019.04.066 · Cited by 125 · cited 7×
“Along with this finding, several clinical studies including ours have noted reduced bone turnover in patients with metabolic diseases (71, 103).”
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The interrelationship between bone and fat: from cellular see-saw to endocrine reciprocity
Gijsen, H. S., Crowther, N. J., Hough, F. S., & Ferris, W. F. (2012) · Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s00018-012-1211-2 · Cited by 115
Boonen, S., Mohan, S., Dequeker, J., Aerssens, J., Vanderschueren, D., Verbeke, G., Broos, P., Bouillon, R., & Baylink, D. (1999) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1359/jbmr.1999.14.12.2150 · Cited by 114 · cited 1×
“A number of underlying pathogenic mechanisms of osteoporosis have been proposed, such as estrogen deficiency-associated Bone Marrow (BM) inflammation (8) or decreased levels of anabolic hormones (9, 10).”
BackgroundEffect of estrogens on bone marrow adipogenesis and Sirt1 in aging C57BL/6J mice
Elbaz, A., Rivas, D., & Duque, G. (2009) · Biogerontology (Dordrecht) · doi:10.1007/s10522-009-9221-7 · Cited by 111
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The Role of Oxidative Stress in the Development of Diabetes Mellitus and Its Complications
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Factors affecting bone mineral density in postmenopausal women
Heidari, B., Hosseini, R., Javadian, Y., Bijani, A., Sateri, M. H., & Nouroddini, H. G. (2015) · Archives of Osteoporosis · doi:10.1007/s11657-015-0217-4 · Cited by 104
Association between Obesity and Bone Mineral Density by Gender and Menopausal Status
Salamat, M. R., Salamat, A. H., & Janghorbani, M. (2016) · Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.3803/enm.2016.31.4.547 · Cited by 103
Exercise Decreases Marrow Adipose Tissue Through ß-Oxidation in Obese Running Mice
Styner, M., Pagnotti, G. M., McGrath, C., Wu, X., Sen, B., Uzer, G., Xie, Z., Zong, X., Styner, M. A., Rubin, C. T., et al. (2017) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1002/jbmr.3159 · Cited by 103
The role of insulin-like growth factor I components in the regulation of vitamin D
Manuel Gomez, J. (2006) · Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology · doi:10.2174/138920106776597621 · Cited by 96
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“Testosterone exhibits an anabolic impact on bone formation in the periosteal surface in mice (58), and that oral administration of testosterone reduces the accelerated bone loss in orchiectomized mice (59).”
BackgroundMarrow adipose tissue composition in adults with morbid obesity
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“Osteoporosis and aging are characterized with decreased BMD, along with increased BMAT and accompanied by increased resorption activity in the BM in mice and humans (90, 91).”
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“increased bone resorption and bone formation, manifested by increased number of osteoblast precursors, osteoblast proliferation and increased osteoblast number (72, 73).”
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“Gradual reduction in the testosterone levels in aging men are associated with reduction in bone mass (60, 61), and osteoblast dysfunction (62).”
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“Estrogen is involved in molecular signaling in bone and regulation of BMAds (53–55) as estrogen is a positive regulator of osteogenesis through activation of estrogen receptor (ER)-dependent cytoplasmic kinases, BMPs and Wnt signaling (56, 57).”
BackgroundPPARG Post-translational Modifications Regulate Bone Formation and Bone Resorption
Stechschulte, L. A., Czernik, P., Rotter, Z. C., Tausif, F. N., Corzo, C. A., Marciano, D., Asteian, A., Zheng, J., Bruning, J., Kamenecka, T., et al. (2016) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2016.06.040 · Cited by 85
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Early-onset type 2 diabetes impairs skeletal acquisition in the male TALLYHO/JngJ mouse.
Devlin, M. J., van Vliet, M., Motyl, K., Karim, L., Brooks, D. J., Louis, L., Conlon, C., Rosen, C., & Bouxsein, M. (2014) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2014-1041 · Cited by 82
Bone Health in the Transgender Population
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Vitamin D endocrine system and osteoblasts.
van Driel, M., & van Leeuwen, J. (2014) · BoneKEy Reports · doi:10.1038/bonekey.2013.227 · Cited by 81
Bone Turnover Is Suppressed in Insulin Resistance, Independent of Adiposity
Tonks, K., White, C. P., J. Center, Samocha-Bonet, D., & Greenfield, J. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2016-3282 · Cited by 80 · cited 1×
“Frontiers in Endocrinology 05 BMAT formation evaluated by measurement of BMAT volume, BMAd size and number (70, 92–98), which was correlated with increased, unchanged, or decreased BMD in mice depending on the employed diabetic model (T1D or T2D) (70, 71, 94, 95, 99), but associated with a higher risk of fractures.”
MethodShort‐Term Effect of Estrogen on Human Bone Marrow Fat
Limonard, E., Veldhuis-Vlug, A., van Dussen, L., Runge, J., Tanck, M. W., Endert, E., Heijboer, A., Fliers, E., Hollak, C., Akkerman, E., et al. (2015) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1002/jbmr.2557 · Cited by 80
Osteoporosis Treatment with Anti-Sclerostin Antibodies—Mechanisms of Action and Clinical Application
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Sclerostin monoclonal antibody enhanced bone fracture healing in an open osteotomy model in rats
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Extrinsic Mechanisms Involved in Age-Related Defective Bone Formation
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“leading to inhibited bone formation and enhanced bone resorption (48).”
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The Effects of Adiponectin and Leptin on Changes in Bone Mineral Density
Barbour, K. E., Zmuda, J., Boudreau, R., Strotmeyer, E., Horwitz, M., Evans, R., Kanaya, A., Harris, T. B., & Cauley, J. (2011) · Osteoporosis International · doi:10.1007/s00198-011-1768-x · Cited by 77
Sheu, Y., Amati, F., Schwartz, A., Danielson, M., Li, X.-J., Boudreau, R., & Cauley, J. (2017) · Bone · doi:10.1016/j.bone.2017.02.001 · Cited by 75
Sclerostin Antibody Treatment Improves Fracture Outcomes in a Type I Diabetic Mouse Model
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The implications of bone marrow adipose tissue on inflammaging
Aaron, N., Costa, S., Rosen, C. J., & Qiang, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2022.853765 · Cited by 74
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“IL-6 is one of the cytokines that is secreted by BMAds and increases osteoclast formation and bone resorption, thereby leading to decreased BMD in men and women (150, 151).”
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Links among Obesity, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, and Osteoporosis: Bone as a Target
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“In addition, several disorders that are associated with age, such as diabetes mellitus (DM) and obesity, both induce bone marrow adipogenesis and reduce bone formation (Ali et al., 2022).”
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“Based on the balance of osteo‑ genesis and adipogenesis, the expansion of bone marrow adipose tissue is common in populations at a high risk for osteoporosis, leading to decreased bone formation (24).”
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“Accumulating evidence affirms that obesity is deeply involved in osteoporosis [35]; however, its relevant mechanism should be strongly emphasized.”
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Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Ali, D., Tencerova, M., Figeac, F., Kassem, M., & Jafari, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern Denmark (DK)
- University of Copenhagen (DK)
- Corresponding author
- Ali, Dalia
- Jafari, Abbas
- Venue
- Frontiers in Endocrinology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2022-09-15
- Volume
- 13
- Pages
- 981487-981487
- ISSN
- 1664-2392 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC9520254
- OpenAlex
- W4295942629
- Cited by
- 122
- References
- 220
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 2
- FWCI
- 5.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Endocrinology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- University of Southern Denmark Research Portal (University of Southern Denmark) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Olav Thon Stiftelsen
- Grantová Agentura České Republiky
- Novo Nordisk Fonden
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Bone health and osteoporosis research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Bone Metabolism and Diseases
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Disease and Adiposity
- Keywords
- osteoporosis, bone marrow adipose tissue, bone marrow adiposity, obesity, type 2 diabetes, aging, bone fragility, bone homeostasis, bone formation, fracture risk, postmenopausal women, older men
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aging, Bone Marrow, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2, Female, Humans, Male, Obesity, Osteoporosis, Adiposity, Fractures, Bone
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