Dissemination of Antimicrobial Resistance in Microbial Ecosystems through Horizontal Gene Transfer
Open accessAbstract
The emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance among pathogenic bacteria has been a rising problem for public health in recent decades. It is becoming increasingly recognized that not only antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) encountered in clinical pathogens are of relevance, but rather, all pathogenic, commensal as well as environmental bacteria-and also mobile genetic elements and bacteriophages-form a reservoir of ARGs (the resistome) from which pathogenic bacteria can acquire resistance via horizontal gene transfer (HGT). HGT has caused antibiotic resistance to spread from commensal and environmental species to pathogenic ones, as has been shown for some clinically important ARGs. Of the three canonical mechanisms of HGT, conjugation is thought to have the greatest influence on the dissemination of ARGs. While transformation and transduction are deemed less important, recent discoveries suggest their role may be larger than previously thought. Understanding the extent of the resistome and how its mobilization to pathogenic bacteria takes place is essential for efforts to control the dissemination of these genes. Here, we will discuss the concept of the resistome, provide examples of HGT of clinically relevant ARGs and present an overview of the current knowledge of the contributions the various HGT mechanisms make to the spread of antibiotic resistance.
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Some AMR determinants in probiotics reflect intrinsic or species-associated background resistance, whereas others are acquired, horizontally transferable and clinically relevant.
“Some determinants reflect intrinsic or species-associated background resistance, whereas others are acquired, horizontally transferable and clinically relevant.”
From Integrated Phenotypic and Sequencing-Based Resistome Assessment of Antimicrobial Resistance Determinants in a Sample of Commercial Farm-Animal Probiotic Products (2026) · cites this paper as [12]
The Introduction says resistance can arise through mutation or acquisition of genes by horizontal transfer, and “Reservoirs of resistance” describes transferable genes that cause clinical treatment problems. The cited paper does not establish the claim’s distinction between intrinsic or species-associated resistance and acquired resistance specifically in probiotics; no page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIntrinsic determinants in Enterococcus faecium must be interpreted differently from mobile glycopeptide, oxazolidinone, colistin, ESBL or carbapenemase genes.
“Intrinsic determinants in Enterococcus faecium, for example, must be interpreted differently from mobile glycopeptide, oxazolidinone, colistin, extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) or carbapenemase genes [11,12,13,14].”
From Integrated Phenotypic and Sequencing-Based Resistome Assessment of Antimicrobial Resistance Determinants in a Sample of Commercial Farm-Animal Probiotic Products (2026) · cites this paper as [12]
The “Reservoirs of resistance” section describes the spread of ESBL-associated blaCTX-M genes, the origins of OXA-48-type carbapenemase genes, and plasmid-mediated colistin resistance gene mcr-1. It does not discuss intrinsic determinants in Enterococcus faecium or establish the claimed distinction for glycopeptide and oxazolidinone genes. The cited copy provides no page numbers for these passages. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe mere presence of an AMR-associated database hit does not necessarily imply public-health risk.
“the mere presence of an AMR-associated database hit does not necessarily imply public-health risk.”
Mobility, ecological opportunity and recipient compatibility determine whether an ARG becomes a clinically relevant hazard.
“This framework is consistent with the broader horizontal gene transfer (HGT) literature, which emphasizes that mobility, ecological opportunity and recipient compatibility determine whether an ARG becomes a clinically relevant hazard [11,12,16,17].”
Even in the absence of risk of conjugal transfer of non-intrinsic AR genes, there is also a possibility of transfer via transformation of naked DNA or transduction via phage.
“Even in the absence of risk of conjugal transfer of non-intrinsic AR genes, there is also a possibility of transfer via transformation of naked DNA46, 47 or transduction via phage.48”
From Emerging issues in probiotic safety: 2023 perspectives (2023) · cites this paper as [48]
Horizontal gene transfer is the mechanism by which bacteria can acquire ARGs.
“HGT is the mechanism by which bacteria can acquire ARGs.”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Von Wintersdorff et al., 2016
Three mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer have been identified: conjugation, transduction, and transformation.
“Three mechanisms of HGT have been identified: (1) conjugation, (2) transduction, and (3) transformation (Levy, 1989; Von Wintersdorff et al., 2016).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Von Wintersdorff et al., 2016
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“This framework is consistent with the broader horizontal gene transfer (HGT) literature, which emphasizes that mobility, ecological opportunity and recipient compatibility determine whether an ARG becomes a clinically relevant hazard [11,12,16,17].”
- Authors
- von Wintersdorff, C. J. H., Penders, J., van Niekerk, J. M., Mills, N. D., Majumder, S., van Alphen, L. B., Savelkoul, P. H. M., & Wolffs, P. F. G.
- Affiliations
- Maastricht University Medical Centre (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Wolffs, Petra F. G.
- Venue
- Frontiers in Microbiology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2016-02-19
- Volume
- 7
- Pages
- 173-173
- ISSN
- 1664-302X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4759269
- OpenAlex
- W2305704688
- Cited by
- 1,707
- References
- 149
- Citations by year
- 2026: 190 · 2025: 205 · 2024: 191 · 2023: 230 · 2022: 220 · 2021: 204 · 2020: 171 · 2019: 134 · 2018: 83 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 19 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 6.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Microbiology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Medicine › Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology › Antibiotic Use and Resistance
- Keywords
- antimicrobial resistance, horizontal gene transfer, resistome, antibiotic resistance genes, conjugation, transformation, transduction, mobile genetic elements, bacteriophages, commensal bacteria, environmental bacteria, pathogenic bacteria, resistance gene dissemination
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