Vulnerability of mesostriatal dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson’s disease
Open accessAbstract
The term vulnerability was first associated with the midbrain dopaminergic neurons 85 years ago, before they were identified as monoaminergic neurons, when Foix and Nicolesco (1925) reported the loss of neuromelanin containing neurons in the midbrain of patients with post-encephalitic Parkinson's disease (PD). A few years later, Hassler (1938) showed that degeneration is more intense in the ventral tier of the substantia nigra compacta than in its dorsal tier and the ventral tegmental area (VTA), outlining the concept of differential vulnerability of midbrain dopaminergic (DA-) neurons. Nowadays, we know that other neuronal groups degenerate in PD, but the massive loss of nigral DA-cells is its pathological hallmark, having a pivotal position in the pathophysiology of the disease as it is responsible for the motor symptoms. Data from humans as well as cellular and animal models indicate that DA-cell degeneration is a complex process, probably precipitated by the convergence of different risk factors, mediated by oxidative stress, and involving pathogenic factors arising within the DA-neuron (intrinsic factors), and from its environment and distant interconnected brain regions (extrinsic factors). In light of current data, intrinsic factors seem to be preferentially involved in the first steps of the degenerative process, and extrinsic factors in its progression. A controversial issue is the relative weight of the impairment of common cell functions, such as energy metabolism and proteostasis, and specific dopaminergic functions, such as pacemaking activity and DA handling, in the pathogenesis of DA-cell degeneration. Here we will review the current knowledge about the relevance of these factors at the beginning and during the progression of PD, and in the differential vulnerability of midbrain DA-cells.
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Death of SNc dopamine neurons is more pronounced than death of other midbrain dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease.
“Although dopaminergic neurons throughout the midbrain degenerate during Parkinson’s disease, death of SNc dopamine neurons is more pronounced (Gonzalez-Hernandez et al., 2010).”
From Local cues establish and maintain region-specific phenotypes of basal ganglia microglia (2017) · cites this paper as Gonzalez-Hernandez et al., 2010
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Dopamine transporter messenger RNA in Parkinson's disease and control substantia nigra neurons
Uhl, G. R., Walther, D. M., Mash, D. C., Faucheux, B. A., & Javoy-Agid, F. (1994) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410350421 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
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Cabello, C. R., Thune, J. J., Pakkenberg, H., & Pakkenberg, B. (2002) · Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2990.2002.00393.x · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Involvement of the subthalamic nucleus in glutamatergic compensatory mechanisms
Bézard, E., Boraud, T., Bioulac, B. H., & Gross, C. E. (1999) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00627.x · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Pael‐R is accumulated in Lewy bodies of Parkinson's disease
Murakami, T., Shoji, M., Imai, Y., Inoue, H., Kawarabayashi, T., Matsubara, E., Harigaya, Y., Sasaki, A., Takahashi, R., & Abe, K. (2004) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.20064 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
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Mhyre, T. R., Boyd, J. T., Hamill, R. W., & Maguire‐Zeiss, K. A. (2012) · Sub-cellular biochemistry/Subcellular biochemistry · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5416-4_16 · Cited by 442 · see citing works
“Tretiakoff named the eponymous Lewy body inclusions in honor of Lewy’s work and a more detailed description of PD pathology by Foix & Nicolesco subsequently identified the specific loss of pigmented, neuromelanin containing neurons in the SN (Gonzalez-Hernandez et al. 2010).”
BackgroundLocal cues establish and maintain region-specific phenotypes of basal ganglia microglia
De Biase, L. M., Schuebel, K. E., Fusfeld, Z. H., Jair, K., Hawes, I. A., Cimbro, R., Zhang, H.-Y., Liu, Q.-R., Shen, H., Xi, Z.-X., et al. (2017) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.06.020 · Cited by 432 · see citing works
“Although dopaminergic neurons throughout the midbrain degenerate during Parkinson’s disease, death of SNc dopamine neurons is more pronounced (González-Hernández et al., 2010).”
M1 and M2 immune activation in Parkinson’s Disease: Foe and ally?
Moehle, M. S., & West, A. B. (2014) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.11.018 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
“Through decades of work, it is thought that cells vulnerable to neurodegeneration in PD are particularly sensitive to secreted factors associated with M1 activation (Gonzalez-Hernandez et al., 2010).”
BackgroundDuda, J., Pötschke, C., & Liss, B. (2016) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.13572 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
“…mishandling, impairment of the ubiquitin–proteasome pathway and inflammation contribute to SN DA degeneration and sporadic as well as familial PD (Gonzalez-Hernandez et al. 2010; Guzman et al. 2010; Obeso and Lanciego 2011; Coskun et al. 2012; Sulzer and Surmeier 2013; Beilina and Cookson 2015;…”
BackgroundPatricio, F., Morales-Andrade, A. A., Patricio-Martínez, A., & Limón, I. D. (2020) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2020.595635 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“There is evidence that the dopaminergic neurons of the SNpc are vulnerable to oxidative damage, as they present low levels of antioxidant enzymes, such as glutathione peroxidase, and high levels of pro-oxidants, such as free iron and neuromelanin (González-Hernández et al., 2010).”
Backgroundl-DOPA: A scapegoat for accelerated neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease?
Lipski, J., Nisticò, R., Berretta, N., Guatteo, E., Bernardi, G., & Mercuri, N. B. (2011) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2011.06.005 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Hoban, D. B., Connaughton, E., Connaughton, C., Hogan, G., Thornton, C., Mulcahy, P. J., Moloney, T. C., & Dowd, E. (2012) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2012.10.001 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“Dopaminergic neurons are particularly sensitive to oxidative stress largely owing to low intracellular levels of antioxidant glutathione (Block and Hong, 2005; Gonzalez-Hernandez et al., 2010).”
BackgroundTosatto, L., Horrocks, M. H., Dear, A. J., Knowles, T. P. J., Serra, M. D., Cremades, N., Dobson, C. M., & Klenerman, D. (2015) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep16696 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Villar-Cheda, B., Dominguez-Meijide, A., Joglar, B., Rodriguez-Perez, A. I., Guerra, M. J., & Labandeira-Garcia, J. L. (2012) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2012.04.010 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Garrido‐Gil, P., Valenzuela, R., Villar‐Cheda, B., Lanciego, J. L., & Labandeira-García, J. L. (2012) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-012-0402-9 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“The mechanisms responsible for PD have not been totally clarified (González-Hernández et al. 2010; Smith and Villalba 2008).”
Interaction between NADPH ‐oxidase and R ho‐kinase in angiotensin II ‐induced microglial activation
Rodriguez-Perez, A. I., Borrajo, A., Rodríguez‐Pallares, J., Guerra, M. J., & Labandeira-García, J. L. (2014) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.22765 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“…Key words: angiotensin, NADPH-oxidase, neuroinflammation, microglia, Parkinson, Rho Introduction The etiology of sporadic, idiopathic Parkinson’s disease(PD) appears to be multifactorial, and the pathogenic mechanism is still not clear (Gonz alez-Hern andez et al., 2010; Tolleson and Fang, 2013).”
BackgroundImaging the effect of the circadian light–dark cycle on the glymphatic system in awake rats
Cai, X., Qiao, J., Kulkarni, P. P., Harding, I. C., Ebong, E. E., & Ferris, C. F. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1914017117 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
LRRK2 in peripheral and central nervous system innate immunity: its link to Parkinson's disease
Lee, H., James, W., & Cowley, S. A. (2017) · Biochemical Society Transactions · doi:10.1042/bst20160262 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Borrajo, A., Rodriguez-Perez, A. I., Villar-Cheda, B., Guerra, M. J., & Labandeira-Garcia, J. L. (2014) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.05.021 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Mitochondrial Ca2+-activated K+ channels and their role in cell life and death pathways
Krabbendam, I. E., Honrath, B., Culmsee, C., & Dolga, A. M. (2017) · Cell Calcium · doi:10.1016/j.ceca.2017.07.005 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Particulate matter neurotoxicity in culture is size-dependent
Gillespie, P. A., Tajuba, J., Lippmann, M., Chen, L., & Veronesi, B. (2011) · NeuroToxicology · doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2011.10.006 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“…to oxidative stress damage since they support a high synaptic network within the mesencephalic brain (striatum) and because dopamine metabolism in itself generates ROS (Double et al. 2010; Gao et al. 2002; Gonzalez-Hernandez et al. 2010; Jackson-Lewis and Smeyne 2005; Mitchell et al. 1999).”
BackgroundDutta, D., Kundu, M., Mondal, S., Roy, A., Ruehl, S., Hall, D. A., & Pahan, K. (2019) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2019.104575 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Cardoso, H. D., Santos Junior, E. F. D., de Santana, D. F., Gonçalves-Pimentel, C., Angelim, M. K., Isaac, A. R., Lagranha, C. J., Guedes, R. C. A., Beltrão, E. I., Morya, E., et al. (2014) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects · doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.12.023 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Rgs6 is Required for Adult Maintenance of Dopaminergic Neurons in the Ventral Substantia Nigra
Bifsha, P., Yang, J., Fisher, R. A., & Drouin, J. (2014) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004863 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Similarly, the etiology of PD appears to be multifactorial but one consistent feature of this disease is the greater sensitivity of ventral substantia nigra compacta (vSNc) mDA neurons to degenerate [2] as opposed to mDA neurons of the dorsal SNc (dSNc) and ventral tegmental area (VTA).”
BackgroundRho Kinase and Dopaminergic Degeneration: A Promising Therapeutic Target for Parkinson’s Disease
Labandeira-Garcia, J. L., Rodríguez-Perez, A. I., Villar-Cheda, B., Borrajo, A., Dominguez-Meijide, A., & Guerra, M. J. (2015) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858414554954 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
RGS6 as a Novel Therapeutic Target in CNS Diseases and Cancer
Ahlers‐Dannen, K. E., Chakravarti, B., & Fisher, R. A. (2016) · The AAPS Journal · doi:10.1208/s12248-016-9899-9 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Ambrosi, G., Kuštrimović, N. Z., Siani, F., Rasini, E., Cerri, S., Ghezzi, C., Dicorato, G., Caputo, S., Marino, F., Cosentino, M., et al. (2017) · Neurotoxicity Research · doi:10.1007/s12640-017-9712-2 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Brazdis, R.-M., Alecu, J. E., Marsch, D., Dahms, A., Simmnacher, K., Lörentz, S., Brendler, A., Schneider, Y., Marxreiter, F., Roybon, L., et al. (2020) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddaa039 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Although the underlying mechanisms are yet unclear, several interconnected pathways may contribute to the selective vulnerability of mDANs: (1) mDANs produce the neurotransmitter dopamine that is highly prone to self-oxidation, leading to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), implying a high basal oxidative…”
BackgroundRenin angiotensin system and gender differences in dopaminergic degeneration
Rodriguez-Perez, A. I., Valenzuela, R., Joglar, B., Garrido‐Gil, P., Guerra, M. J., & Labandeira-García, J. L. (2011) · Molecular Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/1750-1326-6-58 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“However, the mechanisms responsible for this difference have not been clarified [4].”
Sekar, S., Mani, S., Rajamani, B., Manivasagam, T., Thenmozhi, A. J., Bhat, A., Ray, B., Essa, M. M., Guillemin, G. J., & Chidambaram, S. B. (2018) · Neurotoxicity Research · doi:10.1007/s12640-018-9921-3 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
RetractedLuo, Z., Ahlers‐Dannen, K. E., Spicer, M. M., Yang, J., Alberico, S. L., Stevens, H. E., Narayanan, N. S., & Fisher, R. A. (2019) · JCI Insight · doi:10.1172/jci.insight.126769 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Wang, Z., Chan, S.-W., Zhao, H., Miu, K.-K., & Chan, W. (2023) · 动物学研究 · doi:10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2022.406 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Features and timing of the response of single neurons to novelty in the substantia nigra
Mikell, C. B., Sheehy, J. P., Youngerman, B. E., McGovern, R. A., Wojtasiewicz, T. J., Chan, A. K.-H., Pullman, S. L., Yu, Q. P., Goodman, R. R., Schevon, C. A., et al. (2013) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2013.10.033 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“However, DA neurons subserving cognitive processes such as novelty detection are thought to be lost late in the disease process (Gonzalez-Hernandez et al., 2010), and prior reports have described DA-like neurons during DBS surgery (Zaghloul et al., 2009b).”
BackgroundVidyadhara, D. J., Yarreiphang, H., Abhilash, P. L., Raju, T. R., & Alladi, P. A. (2016) · Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy · doi:10.1016/j.jchemneu.2016.01.001 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Laser capture microdissection protocol for gene expression analysis in the brain
Garrido‐Gil, P., Fernandez‐Rodriguez, P., Rodríguez‐Pallares, J., & Labandeira-García, J. L. (2017) · Histochemistry and Cell Biology · doi:10.1007/s00418-017-1585-1 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Previous human postmortem and animal studies demonstrated the existence of cellular subpopulations within the SN showing a differential vulnerability to neurodegeneration (Damier et al. 1999; Gonzalez-Hernandez et al. 2004, 2010; Haber 2014).”
Hu, J., Ferchmin, P. A., Hemmerle, A. M., Seroogy, K. B., Eterović, V. A., & Hao, J. (2017) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2017.00272 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“, 1996), which may impact midbrain dopaminergic neurons, since these cells are more vulnerable to various insults (Gonzalez-Hernandez et al., 2010).”
BackgroundVidyadhara, D. J., Sasidharan, A., Kutty, B. M., Raju, T. R., & Alladi, P. A. (2018) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2018.12.015 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Specificity of Pitx3-Dependent Gene Regulatory Networks in Subsets of Midbrain Dopamine Neurons
Bifsha, P., Balsalobre, A., & Drouin, J. (2016) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-016-0040-y · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Numerous interdependent explanations have been proposed in order to account for the differential vulnerability of mDA subtypes in PD, including but not limited to, differences in metabolic activities, antioxidant protection, trophic factor dependence, compensatory mechanisms for survival, toxin response and handling o…”
BackgroundMutations and Binding Sites of Human Transcription Factors
Kamanu, F., Medvedeva, Y. A., Schaefer, U., Janković, B. R., Archer, J. A. C., & Bajić, V. B. (2012) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2012.00100 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“…known that phenotypic specificities determine how individuals react to drugs (Batist et al., 2011; Callahan and Abercrombie, 2011), to infections (González-Hernández et al., 2010), or how predisposed they are to inherited diseases such as cystic fibrosis (Gu et al., 2009; Antigny et al., 2011),…”
BackgroundThe cellular and genomic response of rat dopaminergic neurons (N27) to coated nanosilver
Chorley, B. N., Ward, W. O., Simmons, S. O., Vallanat, B., & Veronesi, B. (2014) · NeuroToxicology · doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2014.08.010 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Bongioanni, P., Carratore, R. D., Dolciotti, C., Diana, A., & Buizza, R. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192013429 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Lafuente, J. V., Requejo, C., Carrasco, A., & Bengoetxea, H. (2017) · International review of neurobiology · doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2017.09.003 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Xue, H.-X., Kong, H., Yu, Y.-G., Zhou, J., Chen, H.-Q., & Yin, Y. (2019) · Behavioural Pharmacology · doi:10.1097/fbp.0000000000000515 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“PD is characterized by the loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) (González-Hernández et al., 2010; Pan et al., 2017).”
BackgroundQuiroga‐Varela, A., Aguilar, E., Iglesias, E., Obeso, J. A., & Marı́n, C. (2017) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.08.017 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Together, these results are in keeping with previous 440 data suggesting that DA striatal terminals are more vulnerable (Rodríguez et al., 441 2001; González-Hernández et al., 2010) to toxins like 6-OHDA and MPTP than 442 the soma, and in keeping with the current views of a presynaptic initial 443…”
Chassain, C., Biélicki, G., Carcenac, C., Ronsin, A.-C., Renou, J., Savasta, M., & Durif, F. (2012) · NMR in Biomedicine · doi:10.1002/nbm.2853 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Furthermore, in PD, highly vulnerable DA subpopulations within the SNc and their axonal projections to dorsal parts of the striatum are almost completely lost, whereas neighboring DA subpopulations within the VTA and their projections to the NAc have much higher survival rates (1,40).”
BackgroundJung, Y. J., Choi, H., & Oh, E. (2021) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2021.136265 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Gabrielyan, L., Liang, H., Minalyan, A., Hatami, A., John, V., & Wang, L. (2020) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-200983 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Most of the studies on PD pathogenesis have focused on neurons in the nigrostriatal system, cortex, and hippocampus [46, 69–71].”
Jaumotte, J. D., Saarma, M., & Zigmond, M. J. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0245663 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Within that structure, the DA neurons of the SN usually die first; then, as the disease progresses, the neurons in the VTA also die [45].”
BackgroundBurkert, N., Roy, S., Häusler, M., Wuttke, D., Müller, S., Wiemer, J., Hollmann, H., Oldrati, M., Ramírez‐Franco, J., Benkert, J., et al. (2023) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-023-05441-6 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Mating-relevant olfactory stimuli activate the rat brain in an age-dependent manner
Tobiansky, D. J., Hattori, T., Scott, J. M., Nutsch, V. L., Roma, P. G., & Dominguez, J. M. (2012) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/wnr.0b013e32835b6ec1 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Requejo, C., Ruíz-Ortega, J. Á., Bengoetxea, H., García-Blanco, A., Herrán, E., Aristieta, A., Igartúa, M., Pedraz, J. L., Ugedo, L., Hernández, R. M., et al. (2016) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-016-0244-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Ray, A., Kambali, M., & Ravindranath, V. (2016) · Antioxidants and Redox Signaling · doi:10.1089/ars.2015.6602 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Several studies from different groups have demonstrated that SNpc DA neurons are particularly vulnerable to oxidative stress that is generated through cell-intrinsic and -ex- trinsic mechanisms (4, 12, 21).”
Weidling, I. W., Preiss, C. N., Chancellor, S. E., Srivastava, G. P., Gibilisco, L., Lin, G., Brennan, M. S., Lee, J. Y., Roth, L. M., Morozova, O., et al. (2025) · Acta Neuropathologica Communications · doi:10.1186/s40478-025-02000-4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“While Tau pathology affects forebrain neurons early in AD, aggregated α-synuclein which gives rise to Lewy bodies, the pathological hallmark of PD, occurs earlier in mDA neurons as compared to forebrain neurons [31].”
Drion, G., Seutin, V., & Sepulchre, R. J. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3411-5_4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Further results in [10, 22–33] suggest the involvement of cytoplasmic calcium accumulation in degeneration [10, 26–33].”
Four main therapeutic keys for Parkinson's disease: A mini review.
Hernández-Baltazar, D., Nadella, R., Zavala-Flores, L. M., Rosas-Jarquín, C. D. J., Rovirosa-Hernández, M. D. J., & Villanueva-Olivo, A. (2019) · PubMed Central · doi:10.22038/ijbms.2019.33659.8025 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Dopaminergic neurons of SNpc are more susceptible to oxidative/nitrosative damage because they have low levels of glutathione peroxidase and vitamin E; as well as high levels of free iron (pro-oxidant), monoamine oxidase, and neuromelanin (5, 24, 25), for this the intracellular accumulation of ROS can induce mitochond…”
BackgroundBone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells increase dopamine synthesis in the injured striatum.
Huang, Y. M., Chang, C.-Y., Zhang, J., & Gao, X. (2012) · PubMed Central · doi:10.3969/j.issn.1673-5374.2012.34.002 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“The up-regulation of D2 receptors could result from increased numbers of D2 receptors on the remaining dopaminergic neuron terminals or increased D2 receptor synthesis within striatopallidal neurons([30-31]).”
BackgroundZhou, Z. (2026) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2026.111722 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Basal Ganglia Circuits: What's Now and Next?
Lanciego, J. L. (2012) · Frontiers in Neuroanatomy · doi:10.3389/fnana.2012.00004 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Nigrostriatal and nigroextrastriatal projection systems are addressed in the contributions made by González-Hernández et al. (2010) and Rommelfanger and Wichmann (2010), respectively.”
BackgroundTAT-PPA1 protects against oxidative stress-induced loss of dopaminergic neurons
Kwon, H. J., Jung, H. Y., Choi, S. Y., Hwang, I. K., Kim, D. W., & Shin, M. J. (2024) · Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.mcn.2024.103978 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
FRET-based assays for neurological disease and diagnostics
Aich, J., Singh, S., Chandrashekhar, S., Srivastav, V., Devarajan, S., & Basu, S. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-95539-3.00005-3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Electronic Simulation of Neuronal Degeneration in Parkinson Disease
Chaudhary, N., Aggarwal, Y., & Sinha, R. K. (2015) · Journal of Clinical Engineering · doi:10.1097/jce.0000000000000092
“Clinical analysis on postmortem of brain sample of patients with PD indicates extensive damage of the midbrain dopaminergic neurons.(4) The presence of >-synuclein in LB reveals its central role in pathogenesis of PD.”
BackgroundSubstantia Nigra Modulation by Essential Fatty Acids
Andrade‐da‐Costa, B. L. D. S., Passos, P. P., Cardoso, H. D., Gonçalves‐Pimentel, C., dos Santos, E. F., Borba, J. M. C., & Guedes, R. C. A. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-410527-0.00020-x
Inhibition of Brain CYP2D Lowers Codeine-induced Analgesia in Rats
Zhou, K. (2012) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
Gould, E. (2017) · Faculty Opinions – Post-Publication Peer Review of the Biomedical Literature · doi:10.3410/f.727795770.793537494
Etchepare, L. (2017) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/21d34163z8300z423ez9dd5zda877d3a577a
“Regarding their implication in PD, there is a well-documented and abundant literature investigating the factors involved in the vulnerability and degeneration of SNc DA neurons (Olanow and Tatton, 1999; González-Hernández, 2010; Surmeier et al., 2010; Dragicevic et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSHH mediated human dopaminergic neuron differentiation is facilitated by transcription factor ZIC3
Sheshadri, P., Bhaskar, S., Gowda, J., Banerjee, S., Duchen, M. R., Prasanna, J., & Kumar, A. (2026) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbamcr.2026.120213
- Authors
- González-Hernández, T.
- Venue
- Frontiers in Neuroanatomy
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2010
- Volume
- 4
- Pages
- 140-140
- ISSN
- 1662-5129 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2978035
- OpenAlex
- W2123571361
- Cited by
- 65
- References
- 263
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 3.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Neuroanatomy (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Fundación Canaria de Investigación y Salud
- Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, India
- Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas
- Instituto de Salud Carlos III
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Parkinson's Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Nuclear Receptors and Signaling
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Neurological disorders and treatments
- Keywords
- Parkinson's disease, substantia nigra pars compacta, ventral tegmental area, oxidative stress, intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors, energy metabolism, proteostasis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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