Computerized training of non-verbal reasoning and working memory in children with intellectual disability.

May combine two claims.

Amount of progress during training predicted transfer to working memory and comprehension of instructions, with higher training progress associated with greater transfer improvements.

“amount of progress during training predicted transfer to WM and comprehension of instructions, with higher training progress being associated with greater transfer improvements.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: No training improvements have occurred by the second and third day of training.

May combine two claims.

Training did not lead to significant improvements on reasoning ability tasks (Block Design and Raven's colored matrices), although a trend association was observed on improvements on Block Design for males.

“Training did not lead to significant improvements on reasoning ability tasks (Block Design and Raven's colored matrices) although a trend association was observed on improvements on Block Design for males.”

May combine two claims.

In the non-adaptive training group, all significant correlations between baseline performance and improvements on T2 measures were negative, indicating that lower performance on T1 measures was associated with higher gains in performance on T2 measures.

“This was not observed; rather as would be expected with a regression toward the mean effect, all significant correlations were negative indicating that lower performance on T1 measures was associated with higher gains in performance on T2 measures.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The non-adaptive training group is an appropriate control for test-retest effects and general plasticity.

May combine two claims.

In general, high performance at baseline was associated with larger progress during training and a higher level of transfer effects.

“In general we observed that high performance at baseline was associated with larger progress during training and a higher level of transfer effects.”

May combine two claims.

At baseline, participants in the current study performed equally well or significantly higher on measures of visuo-spatial working memory (Odd One Out) and on measures of fluid intelligence (Block Design and Raven's colored matrices) compared to typically developing 4-year-olds.

“We found that, at baseline, participants in the current study performed equally well or significantly higher on measures of visuo-spatial WM (Odd One Out) and on measures of fluid intelligence (Block Design and Raven's colored matrices).”

• cites Bergman Nutley et al. (2011)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The typically developing 4-year-olds from Bergman Nutley et al. (2011) are comparable to the current sample for comparing training-induced improvements.

May combine two claims.

Using computerized versions of training programs allows for adaptive algorithms that ensure task difficulty is always challenging, which is crucial for training effectiveness.

“Using computerized versions of training programs has allowed for the implementation of adaptive algorithms that ensures that the level of task difficulty is always challenging for the individual, something that has been shown to be crucial for the training to be effective”

• cites Klingberg, 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Children with intellectual disabilities show deficits in both reasoning ability and working memory.

“Children with intellectual disabilities show deficits in both reasoning ability and working memory (WM) that impact everyday functioning and academic achievement.”

• Also stated in: § Introduction · hedged

  “In addition to impaired intelligence, these children often show impaired performance on both visuo-spatial and verbal WM (Van der Molen et al., 2009).”

• cites Van der Molen et al., 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Participants were randomized to a 5-week adaptive training program or a non-adaptive version of the program.

“Participants were randomized to a 5-week adaptive training program (intervention group) or non-adaptive version of the program (active control group).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Variants in the DAT1 gene influence the degree of transfer following cognitive training.

“it has recently been reported that variants within the gene coding the dopamine transporter (DAT1) influence the degree of transfer following cognitive training”

• cites Söderqvist et al., 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

It is possible to train visuo-spatial working memory in intellectually impaired young people, and such training can lead to improvements on non-trained working memory tasks, also in the verbal domain.

“These findings suggest that it is possible to train visuo-spatial WM in intellectually impaired young people and, importantly, that such training can lead to improvements on non-trained WM tasks, also in the verbal domain.”

May combine two claims.

Effects of working memory training transfer to reasoning tasks have been observed in some studies but not others.

“This has indeed been observed in some studies (Klingberg et al., 2005; Jaeggi et al., 2008), while other studies have not found such effects”

• cites Klingberg et al., 2005Not checked yet

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• cites Jaeggi et al., 2008Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Holmes et al., 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

T-tests revealed no significant differences in baseline performance or age between the two groups (all p-values >0.1).

“T-tests revealed no significant differences in baseline performance or age between the two groups (all p-values >0.1)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Training performance was monitored by researchers via an internet server to ensure training was performed and each session lasted approximately 20 minutes.

“Training performance was monitored by researchers via an internet server for both training groups to ensure that training was being performed and that each session lasted approximately 20 min.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Gf is independent from crystallized intelligence but is of great importance for academic achievement.

“Gf is independent from skills relying on previously learnt knowledge, commonly referred to as crystallized intelligence, but is of great importance for academic achievement”

• cites Lynn et al., 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Alloway and Alloway, 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Chi Square tests showed no significant differences in distribution of gender and number of co-morbid diagnoses between the two training groups (both p-values >0.1).

“Similarly, Chi Square tests showed no significant differences in the distribution of gender and number of co-morbid diagnoses between the two training groups (both p-values >0.1).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Training was performed for 20-25 sessions (M = 24.5, SD = 1.50 adaptive; M = 24.7, SD = 1.16 non-adaptive).

“Training was performed for 20–25 sessions (M = 24.5, SD = 1.50 in the adaptive training group and M = 24.7, SD = 1.16 in the non-adaptive training group).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Children were excluded due to problems with T1 assessments (n=3), not completing 20 sessions (n=7), and technical problems (n=1).

“Children were excluded due to problems with T1 assessments (e.g., poor engagement in tasks) (n = 3), not completing the required 20 sessions of training (n = 7) and technical problems causing incomplete training data (n = 1).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

All children were pseudo-randomized into the two training groups, after controlling for chronological age and gender by independent personnel.

“All children were pseudo-randomized into the two training groups, after controlling for chronological age and gender by independent personnel not otherwise involved with study design or implementation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Inconsistent findings on transfer may reflect variability in demographic characteristics, tasks used to evaluate reasoning, and factors such as motivation.

“The inconsistent findings may reflect variability in the demographic characteristics of the participants, such as age and clinical status, the tasks used to evaluate reasoning ability (Klingberg, 2010), as well as other factors associated with the training programs such as motivation”

• cites Klingberg, 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Jaeggi et al., 2011Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Out of 52 participants recruited, 41 were included in the analyses.

“Out of 52 participants recruited, 41 were included in the analyses (22 males and 19 females), aged 6–12.5 years (M = 9.68, SD = 1.58).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Training progress correlates with degree of transfer.

“and between training progress and degree of transfer”

• cites Jaeggi et al., 2011Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Working memory training improves working memory performance in healthy children and adults and in various clinical populations.

“Such training has been shown to improve WM performance in healthy children and adults”

• cites Olesen et al., 2004Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Jaeggi et al., 2008Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Thorell et al., 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Twenty-two children were included in the adaptive training group and 19 in the non-adaptive training group.

“Twenty-two children were included in the adaptive training group and 19 children were included in the non-adaptive training group.”

May combine two claims.

Intellectual disability includes independent deficits in both Gf and working memory, suggesting children with such disabilities might benefit from interventions aimed to improve working memory as well as non-verbal reasoning.

“Intellectual disability thus includes independent deficits in both Gf and WM, which suggest that children with such disabilities might benefit from interventions aimed to improve WM as well as NVR.”

May combine two claims.

Working memory impairments in children with intellectual disabilities remain after controlling for Gf, so they are not mediated by Gf deficits.

“these impairments are not mediated by Gf deficits as WM impairments remain after controlling for Gf”

• cites Van der Molen et al., 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Teaching rehearsal strategies can improve working memory performance in patients with intellectual disabilities.

“some studies did show that this approach can improve WM performance”

• cites Brown et al., 1973Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Kramer and Engle, 1981Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Conners et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Due to the observed trend, gender was included as a covariate in all subsequent analyses.

“Due to this observation we included gender as a covariate in all subsequent analyses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The study had a double-blinded design, with participants and cognitive assessors blind to group membership.

“The study had a double-blinded design, with participants and cognitive assessors being blind to group membership.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Baseline cognitive capacity correlates with improvements following training.

“Other studies have reported correlations between baseline cognitive capacity and improvements following training”

• cites Mackey et al., 2011Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In intellectually impaired teenagers, at a 10-week follow-up, significant improvements were observed on visual working memory and on measures of school achievement and story recall.

“Additional encouraging results emerged at a 10-week follow-up with significant improvements observed on visual WM and on measures of school achievement and story recall.”

• cites Van der Molen et al., 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

To reduce test-retest effects, even numbered items of Raven's colored matrices were administered at T1 and odd numbered items at T2 and T3.

“To reduce test-retest effects and shorten the time of assessment, we administered even numbered items of Raven's colored matrices at T1 and odd numbered items at T2 and T3.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Their relative low baseline capacity reflects a reduced level of plasticity that leads to smaller effects of transfer compared to typically developing 4-year-olds.

“Rather, it is suggested that their relative low baseline capacity reflects a reduced level of plasticity that leads to smaller effects of transfer compared to that observed for the typically developing 4-year-olds.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Training progress is a valid indicator of training-induced plasticity or learning.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The typically developing 4-year-olds from Bergman Nutley et al. (2011) are comparable to the current sample for comparing training-induced improvements.

May combine two claims.

No significant relation between baseline capacity and training performance was found, thus failing to explain what determined successful training for the participants.

“However, no significant relation between baseline capacity and training performance was found, thus failing to explain what determined successful training for the participants.”

• cites Jaeggi et al. (2011)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Females and participants with an intellectual disability but no additional diagnosis on average had more progress during training.

“These results show that females and participants with an intellectual disability but no additional diagnosis on average had more progress during training.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Training progress is a valid indicator of training-induced plasticity or learning.

May combine two claims.

Training progress predicted improvements on both working memory and language comprehension directly following training, but not at a 1-year follow-up.

“Training progress predicted improvements on both WM and language comprehension directly following training, but not at a 1-year follow-up.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Training progress is a valid indicator of training-induced plasticity or learning.

May combine two claims.

Performance on the verbal working memory task might be an indication of severity of impairment, which in turn might affect susceptibility to training-induced plasticity.

“Considering the evidence that verbal WM is specifically impaired in populations with intellectual disabilities (Van der Molen et al., 2009), performance on the verbal WM task might be an indication of severity of impairment, which in turn might affect the susceptibility to training induced plasticity.”

• cites Van der Molen et al., 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Training progress is a valid indicator of training-induced plasticity or learning.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Other factors that the study was not able to control for but are likely to influence training effects are underlying etiology and genetic variability.

“Other factors that we were not able to control for in this study but are likely to influence training effects are underlying etiology and genetic variability.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Transfer effects following working memory training were dependent on improvements observed during training in typically developing children.

“The importance of training progress for transfer has recently also been demonstrated by Jaeggi et al. (2011), who showed that transfer effects following WM training were dependent on improvements observed during training in typically developing children.”

• cites Jaeggi et al. (2011)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Training on purely visuo-spatial tasks resulted in improvements on tasks assessing verbal working memory and language function, showing transfer between cognitive constructs and modalities.

“Training on purely visuo-spatial tasks resulted in improvements tasks assessing verbal WM and language function, thus showing transfer between cognitive constructs and modalities.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Training progress is a valid indicator of training-induced plasticity or learning.

May combine two claims.

Reasoning ability is more difficult to improve with training in this clinical group, perhaps due to this deficit being particularly impaired in children with intellectual disability.

“This suggests that reasoning ability is more difficult to improve with training in this clinical group, perhaps due to this deficit being particularly impaired in children with intellectual disability.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Training progress is a valid indicator of training-induced plasticity or learning.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The typically developing 4-year-olds from Bergman Nutley et al. (2011) are comparable to the current sample for comparing training-induced improvements.

May combine two claims.

In the current sample, improvements on Block Design were of smaller magnitude and with larger variability compared to the typically developing sample.

“However, in the current sample improvements on Block Design were of a smaller magnitude and with larger variability compared to the typically developing sample.”

• cites Bergman Nutley et al., 2011Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The typically developing 4-year-olds from Bergman Nutley et al. (2011) are comparable to the current sample for comparing training-induced improvements.