CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 1,177Cognitive Abilities and TestingNeural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesCognitive Functions and Memory

Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not

Open access
Diamond, Adele, Ling, Daphne S.·2016·Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
DOI 10.1016/j.dcn.2015.11.005PMC PMC5108631
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

The 'Executive Functions' (EFs) of inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility enable us to think before we act, resist temptations or impulsive reactions, stay focused, reason, problem-solve, flexibly adjust to changed demands or priorities, and see things from new and different perspectives. These skills are critical for success in all life's aspects and are sometimes more predictive than even IQ or socioeconomic status. Understandably, there is great interest in improving EFs. It's now clear they can be improved at any age through training and practice, much as physical exercise hones physical fitness. However, despite claims to the contrary, wide transfer does not seem to occur and 'mindless' aerobic exercise does little to improve EFs. Important questions remain: How much can EFs be improved (are benefits only superficial) and how long can benefits be sustained? What are the best methods for improving EFs? What about an approach accounts for its success? Do the answers to these differ by individual characteristics such as age or gender? Since stress, sadness, loneliness, or poor health impair EFs, and the reverse enhances EFs, we predict that besides directly train EFs, the most successful approaches for improving EFs will also address emotional, social, and physical needs.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.dcn.2015.11.005

Cites

54 of 54 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Many evidence-based treatments for EF in children with developmental disabilities target specific EF deficit subtypes; for example, central stimulants are evidence-based for inhibition, working memory, and attention deficits, Cogmed improves working memory specifically, and Unstuck and On Target improves flexibility.

    “Many evidence-based treatments for EF in children with developmental disabilities target specific “subtypes” of EF deficit, for example central stimulants are evidence-based for inhibition, working memory and attention deficits, while the computer-based treatment Cogmed improves working memory specifically (Diamond & Ling, 2016) and the cognitive-behavioral treatment Unstuck and On Target improves”

    From Data‐driven identification of subtypes of executive function across typical development, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorders (2020) · cites this paper as Diamond & Ling, 2016

    Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Effective interventions that foster self-regulation and executive functions can prepare children who have experienced poverty-related adversities to successfully engage in learning and better succeed in school.

    “Effective interventions that foster self-regulation and executive functions can prepare children who have experienced poverty-related adversities to successfully engage in learning and better succeed in school”

    From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context<sup>1</sup> (2019) · cites this paper as Diamond & Ling, 2016

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 146

  1. Alloway T.P. Alloway R.G. Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment J. Exp. Child Psychol. 106 2010 20 29 20018296
  2. Allport A. Wylie G. Task switching, stimulus-response bindings, and negative priming Monsell S. Driver J. Control of Cognitive Processes: Attention and Performance XVII 2000 MIT Press Cambridge, MA 35 70
  3. Angevaren M. Aufdemkampe G. Verhaar H.J.J. Aleman A. Vanhees L. Physical activity and enhanced fitness to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 3 3 2008 1 70 18425918
  4. Aron A.R. Behrens T.E. Smith S. Frank M.J. Poldrack R.A. Triangulating a cognitive control network using diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional MRI J. Neurosci. 27 2007 3743 3752 17409238 PMC6672420
  5. Awh E. Anllo-Vento L. Hillyard S.A. The role of spatial selective attention in working memory for locations: evidence from event-related potentials J. Cogn. Neurosci. 12 2000 840 847 11054925
  6. Awh E. Jonides J. Overlapping mechanisms of attention and spatial working memory Trends Cog. Sci. 5 2001 119 126 11239812
  7. Bailey C.E. Cognitive accuracy and intelligent executive function in the brain and in business Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1118 2007 122 141 17717092
  8. Ball K. Berch D.B. Helmers K.F. Jobe J.B. Leveck M.D. Marsiske M. Willis S.L. Effects of cognitive training interventions with older adults: a randomized controlled trial J. Am. Med. Assoc. 288 2002 2271 2281 PMC2916176 12425704
  9. Bandura A. Self-efficacy second ed. Corsini R.J. Encyclopedia of Psychology vol. 3 1994 Wiley New York, NY 368 369
  10. Bandura A. Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales Pajares F. Urdan T. Self-Efficacy Beliefs of Adolescents vol. 5 2006 Information Age Publishing Greenwich, CT 307 337
  11. Basak C. Boot W.R. Voss M.W. Kramer A.F. Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults? Psychol. Aging 23 2008 765 777 19140648 PMC4041116
  12. Baumeister R.F. Twenge J.M. Nuss C.K. Effects of social exclusion on cognitive processes: anticipated aloneness reduces intelligent thought J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 83 2002 817 827 12374437
  13. Bergman Nutley S. Söderqvist S. Bryde S. Thorell L.B. Humphreys K. Klingberg T. Gains in fluid intelligence after training non-verbal reasoning in 4-year-old children: a controlled, randomized study Dev. Sci. 14 2011 591 601 21477197
  14. Beebe D.W. Gozal D. Obstructive sleep apnea and the prefrontal cortex: towards a comprehensive model linking nocturnal upper airway obstruction to daytime cognitive and behavioral deficits J. Sleep Res. 11 1 2002 1 16 11869421
  15. Bernier A. Beauchamp M.H. Bouvette-Turcot A.A. Carlson S.M. Carrier J. Sleep and cognition in preschool years: specific links to executive functioning Child Dev. 84 2013 1542 1553 23432661
  16. Blanco-Gómez A. Ferré N. Luque V. Cardona M. Gispert-Llauradó M. Escribano J. Canals-Sans J. Being overweight or obese is associated with inhibition control in children from six to ten years of age Acta Paediatr. 104 2015 618 625 25690274
  17. Birnbaum S. Gobeske K.T. Auerbach J. Taylor J.R. Arnsten A.F.T. A role for norepinephrine in stress-induced cognitive deficits: alpha-1-adrenoceptor mediation in the prefrontal cortex Biol. Psychiatry 46 1999 1266 1274 10560032
  18. Best J.R. Effects of physical activity on children's executive function: contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise Dev. Rev. 30 2010 331 351 21818169 PMC3147174
  19. Blair C. School readiness: integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of children's functioning at school entry Am. Psychol. 57 2002 111 127 11899554
  20. Blair C. Raver C. Closing the achievement gap through modification of neurocognitive and neuroendocrine function: results from a cluster randomized controlled trial of an innovative approach to the education of children in kindergarten PLoS ONE 9 11 2014 e112393 25389751 PMC4229187
  21. Blumenthal J.A. Emery C.F. Madden D.J. George L.K. Coleman R.E. Riddle M.W. Williams R.S. Cardiovascular and behavioral effects of aerobic exercise training in healthy older men and women J. Gerontol. 44 5 1989 M147 M157 2768768
  22. Bodrova E. Leong D.J. Tools of the Mind: The Vygotskian Approach to Early Childhood Education second ed. 2007 Merrill/Prentice Hall New York, NY
  23. Borella E. Carretti B. Pelgrina S. The specific role of inhibition in reading comprehension in good and poor comprehenders J. Learn. Disabil. 43 2010 541 552 20606207
  24. Boucard G.K. Albinet C.T. Bugaiska A. Bouquet C.A. Clarys D. Audiffren M. Impact of physical activity on executive functions in aging: a selective effect on inhibition among old adults J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 34 2012 808 827 23204360
  25. Bryck R.L. Fisher P.A. Training the brain: practical applications of neural plasticity from the intersection of cognitive neuroscience, developmental psychology, and prevention science Am. Psychol. 67 2012 87 100 21787037 PMC3335430
  26. Campbell W.K. Krusemark E.A. Dyckman K.A. Brunell A.B. McDowell J.E. Twenge J.M. Clementz B.A. A magnetoencephalography investigation of neural correlates for social exclusion and self-control Soc. Neurosci. 1 2006 124 134 18633781
  27. Carmack C. de Moor C. Boudreaux E. Amaral-Melendez M. Brantley P. Aerobic fitness and leisure physical activity as moderators of the stress-illness relation Ann. Behav. Med. 21 1999 251 257 10626033
  28. Chang Y.K. Tsai Y.J. Chen T.T. Hung T.M. The impacts of coordinative exercise in executive function in kindergarten children: an ERP study Exp. Brain Res. 225 2013 187 196 23239198
  29. Chen L.J. Fox K.R. Ku P.W. Chang Y.W. Effects of aquatic exercise on sleep in older adults with mild sleep impairment: a randomized controlled trial Int. J. Behav. Med. 2015 May 2015 (Epub ahead of print) 26025630
  30. Clements D.H. Sarama J. Layzer C. Presentation in Session on “The Efficacy of an Intervention Synthesizing Scaffolding Designed to Promote Self Regulation with an Early Mathematics Curriculum: Effects on Executive Function” at Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness (SREE) Conference on Understanding Variations in Treatment Effects March 8, 2012 2012 Washington, DC
  31. Colcombe S.J. Kramer A.F. Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: a meta-analytic study Psychol. Sci. 14 2003 125 130 12661673
  32. Davis C.L. Tomporowski P.D. McDowell J.E. Austin B.P. Miller P.H. Yanasak N.E. Naglieri J.A. Exercise improves executive function and achievement and alters brain activation in overweight children: a randomized, controlled trial Health Psychol. 30 2011 91 98 21299297 PMC3057917
  33. de Jong P. Effects of training working memory in adolescents with a below average IQ Workshop on Enhancing Executive Functions in Education in Nijmegen May 20, 2014 May 20, 2014 Nijmegen, NL
  34. D’Esposito M. Postle B.R. The cognitive neuroscience of working memory Ann. Rev. Psychol. 66 2015 115 140 25251486 PMC4374359
  35. Desseilles M. Balteau E. Sterpenich V. Dang-Vu T.T. Darsaud A. Vandewalle G. Schwartz S. Abnormal neural filtering of irrelevant visual information in depression J. Neurosci. 29 2009 1395 1403 19193886 PMC6666064
  36. Diamond A. Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex Child Dev. 71 2000 44 56 10836557
  37. Diamond A. Interrelated and interdependent Dev. Sci. 10 2007 152 158 17181714 PMC1839949
  38. Diamond A. The evidence base for improving school outcomes by addressing the whole child and by addressing skills and attitudes, not just content Early Educ. Dev. 21 2010 780 793 21274420 PMC3026344
  39. Diamond A. Activities and programs that improve children's executive functions Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 21 2012 335 341 25328287 PMC4200392
  40. Diamond A. Executive functions Ann. Rev. Psychol. 64 2013 135 168 23020641 PMC4084861
  41. Diamond A. Whether coordinative (soccer) exercise improves executive functioning in kindergarten children has yet to be demonstrated Exp. Brain Res. 232 2014 1 24728129
  42. Diamond A. Want to optimize executive functions and academic outcomes? Simple, just nourish the human spirit Minn. Symp. Child Psychol. 37 2014 203 230 PMC4210770 25360055
  43. Diamond A. Barnett W.S. Thomas J. Munro S. Preschool program improves cognitive control Science 318 2007 1387 1388 18048670 PMC2174918
  44. Diamond, A., Ling, D., (accepted). Fundamental questions surrounding efforts to improveexecutive functions (including working memory). In: Bunting, M., Novick, J., Dougherty, M., Engle, R.W. (Eds.), An Integrative Approach to Cognitive andWorking Memory Training: Perspectives from Psychology, Neuroscience, and Human Development. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
  45. Dweck C.S. Beliefs that make smart people dumb Sternberg R.J. Why Smart People Can be so Stupid 2002 Yale University Press New Haven, CT 22 41
  46. Duncan G.J. Dowsett C.J. Claessens A. Magnuson K. Huston A.C. Klebanov P. Japel C. School readiness and later achievement Dev. Psychol. 43 2007 1428 1446 18020822
  47. Eisenberg D.P. Berman K.F. Executive function, neural circuitry, and genetic mechanisms in schizophrenia Neuropsychopharmacology 35 2010 258 277 19693005 PMC2794926
  48. Ericsson K.A. Discovering deliberate practice activities that overcome plateaus and limits on improvement of performance Paper presented at the Proceedings of the International Symposium on Performance Science 2009 2009 Utrecht, The Netherlands
  49. Ericsson K.A. Nandagopal K. Roring R.W. Toward a science of exceptional achievement: attaining superior performance through deliberate practice Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1172 1 2009 199 217 19743555
  50. Ericsson K.A. Towne T.J. Expertise Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cog. Sci. 1 2010 404 416 26271380
  51. Fabre C. Chamari K. Mucci P. Masse-Biron J. Prefaut C. Improvement of cognitive function by mental and/or individualized aerobic training in healthy elderly subjects Int. J. Sports Med. 23 2002 415 421 12215960
  52. Fiebach C.J. Ricker B. Friederici A.D. Jacobs A.M. Inhibition and facilitation in visual word recognition: prefrontal contribution to the orthographic neighborhood size effect NeuroImage 36 2007 901 911 17498973
  53. Gable P.A. Harmon-Jones E. Approach-motivated positive affect reduces breadth of attention Psychol. Sci. 19 2008 476 482 18466409
  54. Haslacher H. Michlmayr M. Batmyagmar D. Perkmann T. Ponocny-Seliger E. Scheichenberger V. Winker R. Physical exercise counteracts genetic susceptibility to depression Neuropsychobiology 71 2015 168 175 25998702
  55. Heyman E. Gamelin F.X. Goekint M. Piscitelli F. Roelands B. Leclair E. Meeusen R. Intense exercise increases circulating endocannabinoid and BDNF levels in humans: possible implications for reward and depression Psychoneuroendocrinology 37 2012 844 851 22029953
  56. Hill M.N. Titterness A.K. Morrish A.C. Carrier E.J. Lee T.T. Gil-Mohapel J. Christie B.R. Endogenous cannabinoid signaling is required for voluntary exercise-induced enhancement of progenitor cell proliferation in the hippocampus Hippocampus 20 2010 513 523 19489006 PMC2847038
  57. Hillman C.H. Castelli D.M. Buck S.M. Aerobic fitness and neurocognitive function in healthy preadolescent children Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 37 2005 1967 1974 16286868
  58. Hindin S.B. Zelinski E.M. Extended practice and aerobic exercise interventions benefit untrained cognitive outcomes in older adults: a meta-analysis J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 60 1 2012 136 141 22150209 PMC4130646
  59. Hirt E.R. Devers E.E. McCrea S.M. I want to be creative: exploring the role of hedonic contingency theory in the positive mood-cognitive flexibility link J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 94 2008 214 230 18211173
  60. Holmes J. Gathercole S.E. Dunning D.L. Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children Dev. Sci. 12 2009 F9 F15 19635074
  61. Howard-Jones P. Neuroscience and Education: A Review of Educational Interventions and Approaches Informed by Neuroscience 2014 Education Endowment Foundation Millbank, UK
  62. Hughes C. Dunn J. Understanding mind and emotion: longitudinal associations with mental-state talk between young friends Dev. Psychol. 34 1998 1026 1037 9779748
  63. Hughes C. Ensor R. Does executive function matter for preschoolers’ problem behaviors? J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 36 2008 1 14 17914667
  64. Ikkai A. Curtis C.E. Common neural mechanisms supporting spatial working memory, attention and motor intention Neuropsychologia 49 2011 1428 1434 21182852 PMC3081523
  65. Isen A.M. Johnson M.M. Mertz E. Robinson G.F. The influence of positive affect on the unusualness of word associations J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 48 1985 1413 1426 4020605
  66. Jaeggi S.M. Buschkuehl M. Jonides J. Perrig W.J. Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105 2008 6829 6833 PMC2383929 18443283
  67. Jeon Y.K. Ha C.H. Expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, IGF-1 and cortisol elicited by regular aerobic exercise in adolescents J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 27 2015 737 741 25931720 PMC4395704
  68. Jing Y. Zhang H. Wolff A.R. Bilkey D.K. Liu P. Altered arginine metabolism in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of maternal immune activation rat offspring Schizophr.Res. 148 1–3 2013 151 156 23806581
  69. Kamijo K. Pontifex M.B. O’Leary K.C. Scudder M.R. Wu C.-T. Castelli D.M. Hillman C.H. The effects of an afterschool physical activity program on working memory in preadolescent children Dev. Sci. 14 2011 1046 1058 21884320 PMC3177170
  70. Kane M.J. Brown L.H. McVay J.C. Silvia P.J. Myin-Germeys I. Kwapil T.R. For whom the mind wanders, and when: an experience-sampling study of working memory and executive control in daily life Psychol. Sci. 18 2007 614 621 17614870
  71. Karbach J. Verhaeghen P. Making working memory work: a meta-analysis of executive-control and working memory training in older adults Psychol. Sci. 25 2014 2027 2037 25298292 PMC4381540
  72. Kerr R. Booth B. Specific and varied practice of motor skill Percept. Mot. Skills 46 1978 395 401 662537
  73. Kibbe D.L. Hackett J. Hurley M. McFarland A. Schubert K.G. Schultz A. Harris S.E. Ten Years of TAKE 10!®: integrating physical activity with academic concepts in elementary school classrooms Prev. Med. 52 1 2011 S43 S50 21281670
  74. Kiesel A. Steinhauser M. Wendt M. Falkenstein M. Jost K. Phillip A. Koch I. Control and interference in task switching—a review Psychol. Bull. 136 2010 849 874 20804238
  75. Kimhy D. Vakhrusheva J. Bartels M.N. Armstrong H.F. Ballon J.S. Khan S. Sloan R.P. The impact of aerobic exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurocognition in individuals with Schizophrenia: a single-blind, randomized clinical trial Schizophr. Bull. 41 2015 859 868 25805886 PMC4466187
  76. Kovács A.M. Mehler J. Cognitive gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106 2009 6556 6560 PMC2672482 19365071
  77. Krafft C.E. Schwarz N.F. Chi L. Weinberger A.L. Schaeffer D.J. Pierce J.E. McDowell J.E. An 8-month randomized controlled exercise trial alters brain activation during cognitive tasks in overweight children Obesity 22 2014 232 242 23788510 PMC4077546
  78. Kramer A.F. Erickson K.I. Capitalizing on cortical plasticity: influence of physical activity on cognition and brain function Trends Cogn. Sci.s 11 2007 342 348 17629545
  79. Kueider A.M. Parisi J.M. Gross A.L. Rebok G.W. Computerized cognitive training with older adults: a systematic review PLoS ONE 7 2012 e40588 22792378 PMC3394709
  80. Labelle M.A. Dang-Vu T.T. Petit D. Desautels A. Montplaisir J. Zadra A. Sleep deprivation impairs inhibitory control during wakefulness in adult sleepwalkers J. Sleep Res. Jun 2015 Epub ahead of print 26087833
  81. Leh S.E. Petrides M. Strafella A.P. The neural circuitry of executive functions in healthy subjects and Parkinson's Disease Neuropsychopharmacology 35 2010 70 85 19657332 PMC3055448
  82. Leslie J.B. Career derailment: are you at risk? Any of nine fatal flaws can derail even the most successful executive Healthcare Executive 10 6 1995 6 9 10153669
  83. Liston C. McEwen B.S. Casey B.J. Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106 2009 912 917 PMC2621252 19139412
  84. Liu-Ambrose T. Nagamatsu L.S. Graf P. Beattie B.L. Ashe M.C. Handy T.C. Resistance training and executive functions: a 12-month randomized controlled trial Arch. Intern. Med. 170 2010 170 178 20101012 PMC3448565
  85. Liu-Ambrose T. Nagamatsu L.S. Voss M.W. Khan K.M. Handy T.C. Resistance training and functional plasticity of the aging brain: a 12-month randomized controlled trial Neurobiol. Aging 33 2012 1690 1698 21741129
  86. Lokken K.L. Boeka A.G. Austin H.M. Gunstad J. Harmon C.M. Evidence of executive dysfunction in extremely obese adolescents: a pilot study Surg. Obesity Related Dis. 5 2009 547 552 19766958
  87. Lunt L. Bramham J. Morris R.G. Bullock P.R. Selway R.P. Xenitidis K. David A.S. Prefrontal cortex dysfunction and ‘Jumping to Conclusions’: bias or deficit? J. Neuropsychol. 6 1 2012 65 78 22257612
  88. Manjunath N.K. Telles S. Improved performance in the Tower of London test following yoga Indian J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 45 2001 351 354 11881575
  89. Masley S. Roetzheim R. Gualtieri T. Aerobic exercise enhances cognitive flexibility J. Clin. Psychol. Med. Sett. 16 2009 186 193 19330430
  90. McCarney R. Warner J. Iliffe S. van Haselen R. Griffin M. Fisher P. The Hawthorne Effect: a randomised, controlled trial BMC Med. Res. Methodol. 7 2007 30 17608932 PMC1936999
  91. McClelland M.M. Cameron C.E. Connor C.M. Farris C.L. Jewkes A.M. Morrison F.J. Links between behavioral regulation and preschoolers’ literacy, vocabulary, and math skills Dev. Psychol. 43 2007 947 959 17605527
  92. Miller H.V. Barnes J.C. Beaver K.M. Self-control and health outcomes in a nationally representative sample Am. J. Health Behav. 35 1 2011 15 27 20950155
  93. Moffitt T.E. Arseneault L. Belsky D. Dickson N. Hancox R.J. Harrington H. Caspi A. A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108 2011 2693 2698 PMC3041102 21262822
  94. Moffitt T.E. Childhood self-control predicts adult health, wealth, and crime Multi-Disciplinary Symposium Improving the Well-Being of Children and Youth Copenhagen 2012
  95. Monsell S. Task switching Trends Cogn. Sci. 7 2003 134 140 12639695
  96. Moreau D. Conway A.R.A. Cognitive enhancement: a comparative review of computerized and athletic training programs Int. Rev. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 6 2013 155 183
  97. Moreau D. Conway A.R.A. The case for an ecological approach to cognitive training Trends Cogn. Sci. 18 2014 334 336 24972505
  98. Moreau D. Morrison A.B. Conway A.R.A. An ecological approach to cognitive enhancement: complex motor training Acta Psychol. 157 2015 44 55 25725192
  99. Morrison A.B. Chein J.M. Does working memory training work? The promise and challenges of enhancing cognition by training working memory Psychon. Bull. Rev. 18 1 2011 46 60 21327348
  100. Muraven M. Building self-control strength: practicing self-control leads to improved self-control performance J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 46 2010 465 468 20401323 PMC2855143
  101. Murphy M.C. Dweck C.S. A culture of genius: how an organization's lay theories shape people's cognition, affect, and behavior Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 36 2010 283 296 19826076
  102. Naseem S. Chaudhary B. Collop N. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in adults and obstructive sleep apnea Am. Coll. Chest Phys. 119 2001 294 296 11157621
  103. Nobre A.C. Stokes M.G. Attention and short-term memory: crossroads Neuropsychologia 49 2011 1391 1392 21571124
  104. Noice H. Noice T. Staines G. A short-term intervention to enhance cognitive and affective functioning in older adults J. Aging Health 16 2004 562 585 15271270
  105. Oswald W.D. Gunzelmann T. Rupprecht R. Hagen B. Differential effects of single versus combined cognitive and physical training with older adults: the SimA study in a 5-year perspective Eur. J. Aging 3 2006 179 192 PMC5546372 28794762
  106. Park D.C. Gutchess A.H. Meade M.L. Stine-Morrow E.A.L. Improving cognitive function in older adults: nontraditional approaches J. Gerontol., Ser. B: Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 62 2007 45 52 17565164
  107. Pesce C. Shifting the focus from quantitative to qualitative exercise characteristics in exercise and cognition research J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 34 2012 766 786 23204358
  108. Prakash R.S. Voss M.W. Erickson K.I. Kramer A.F. Physical activity and cognitive vitality Ann. Rev. Psychol. 66 2015 769 795 25251492
  109. Rabipour S. Raz A. Training the brain: fact and fad in cognitive and behavioral remediation Brain Cogn. 79 2012 159 179 22463872
  110. Raichlen D.A. Foster A.D. Gerdeman G.L. Seillier A. Giuffrida A. Wired to run: exercise-induced endocannabinoid signaling in humans and cursorial mammals with implications for the ‘runner's high’ J. Exp. Biol. 215 2012 1331 1336 22442371
  111. Riccio C.A. Gomes H. Interventions for executive function deficits in children and adolescents Appl. Neuropsychol.: Child 2 2013 133 140 23848245
  112. Richmond L.L. Morrison A.B. Chein J.M. Olson I.R. Working memory training and transfer in older adults Psychol. Aging 26 2011 813 822 21707176
  113. Rosenbaum D.A. Carlson R.A. Gilmore R.O. Acquisition of intellectual and perceptual-motor skills Ann. Rev. Psychol. 52 2001 453 470 11148313
  114. Roth R.H. Tam S.Y. Ida Y. Yang J.X. Deutch A.Y. Stress and the mesocorticolimbic dopamine systems Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 537 1988 138 147 3059920
  115. Rueda M.R. Rothbart M.K. McCandliss B.D. Saccomanno L. Posner M.I. Training, maturation, and genetic influences on the development of executive attention Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 2005 14931 14935 PMC1253585 16192352
  116. Sabatier M.J. English A.W. Pathways mediating activity-induced enhancement of recovery from peripheral nerve injury Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 43 2015 163 171 25906422 PMC4470799
  117. Sánchez M.M. Young L.J. Plotsky P.M. Insel T.R. Distribution of corticosteroid receptors in the rhesus brain: relative absence of glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampal formation J. Neurosci. 20 2000 4657 4668 10844035 PMC6772467
  118. Saunamäki T. Jehkonen M. A review of executive functions in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome Acta Neurol. Scand. 115 1 2007 1 11 17156260
  119. Savage R. Cornish K. Manly T. Hollis C.P. Cognitive processes in children's reading and attention: the role of working memory, divided attention, and response inhibition Br. J. Psychol. 97 2006 365 385 16848949
  120. Scudder M.R. Lambourne K. Drollette E.S. Herrmann S.D. Washburn R.A. Donnelly J.E. Hillman C.H. Aerobic capacity and cognitive control in elementary school-age children\ Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 46 2014 1025 1035 24743109 PMC4261924
  121. Smiley-Oyen A.L. Lowry K.A. Francois S.J. Kohut M.L. Ekkekakis P. Exercise, fitness, and neurocognitive function in older adults: the “selective improvement” and “cardiovascular fitness” hypotheses Ann. Behav. Med. 36 2008 280 291 18825471 PMC2748860
  122. Smith S.E. Li J. Garbett K. Mirnics K. Patterson P.H. Maternal immune activation alters fetal brain development through interleukin-6 J. Neurosci. 27 2007 10695 10702 17913903 PMC2387067
  123. Smith E.E. Jonides J. Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes Science 283 1999 1657 1661 10073923
  124. Snowden M. Steinman L. Mochan K. Grodstein F. Prohaska T.R. Thurman D.J. Anderson L.A. Effect of exercise on cognitive performance in community-dwelling older adults: review of intervention trials and recommendations for public health practices and research J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 59 2011 704 716 21438861
  125. Spencer-Smith M. Klingberg T. Benefits of a working memory training program for inattention in daily life: a systematic review and meta-analysis PLoS ONE 10 3 2015 e0119522 25793607 PMC4368783
  126. Spierer L. Chavan C.F. Manuel A.L. Training-induced behavioural and brain plasticity in inhibitory control Front. Hum. Neurosci. 7 2013 427 23914169 PMC3729983
  127. Stepankova H. Lukavsky J. Buschkuehl M. Kopecek M. Ripova D. Jaeggi S.M. The malleability of working memory and visuospatial skills: a randomized controlled study in older adults Dev. Psychol. 50 2014 1049 1059 24219314
  128. Stothart C.R. Simons D.J. Boot W.R. Kramer A.F. Is the effect of aerobic exercise on cognition a placebo effect? PLoS ONE 9 10 2014 e109557 25289674 PMC4188819
  129. Streiner D.L. The effects of exercise programs on cognition in older adults: a review Clin. J. Sport Med. 19 5 2009 438 19741320
  130. Tomporowski P.D. Davis C. Miller P.H. Naglieri J.A. Exercise and children's intelligence, cognition, and academic achievement Educ. Psychol. Rev. 20 2008 111 131 19777141 PMC2748863
  131. Tseng C.N. Gau B.S. Lou M.F. The effectiveness of exercise on improving cognitive function in older people: a systematic review J. Nurs. Res. 19 2011 119 130 21586989
  132. Tuckman B.W. Hinkle J.S. An experimental study of the physical and psychological effects of aerobic exercise on schoolchildren Health Psychol. 5 1986 197 207 3743529
  133. Twenge J.M. Catanese K.R. Baumeister R.F. Social exclusion causes self-defeating behavior J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 83 2002 606 615 12219857
  134. Vandierendonck A. Liefooghe B. Verbruggen F. Task switching: interplay of reconfiguration and interference control Psychol. Bull. 136 2010 601 626 20565170
  135. Vazou S. Smiley-Oyen A.L. Moving and academic learning are not antagonists: acute effects on executive function and enjoyment J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 36 2014 474 485 25356611
  136. Voelcker-Rehage C. Godde B. Staudinger U.M. Cardiovascular and coordination training differentially improve cognitive performance and neural processing in older adults Front. Hum. Neurosci. 5 2011 26 37 21441997 PMC3062100
  137. von Hecker U. Meiser T. Defocused attention in depressed mood: evidence from source monitoring Emotion 5 2005 456 463 16366749
  138. Voss M.W. Nagamatsu L.S. Liu-Ambrose T. Kramer A.F. Exercise, brain, and cognition across the lifespan J. Appl. Physiol. 111 2011 1505 1513 21527670 PMC3220305
  139. Vygotsky L.S. Thought and Language 1986 MIT Press Cambridge, MA
  140. Wachob D. Lorenzi D.G. Brief report: influence of physical activity on sleep quality in children with Autism J. Autism Dev. Disord. 45 2015 2641 2646 25791123
  141. Wass S. Porayska-Pomsta K. Johnson M.H. Training attentional control in infancy Curr. Biol. 21 2011 1 5 21889346 PMC3202624
  142. Williams P. Lord S.R. Effects of group exercise on cognitive functioning and mood in older women Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health 21 1997 45 52 9141729
  143. Williamson D. Dewey A. Steinberg H. Mood change through physical exercise in nine-to ten-year-old children Percept. Mot. Skills 93 1 2001 311 316 11693702
  144. Wolf S.A. Bick-Sander A. Fabel K. Leal-Galicia P. Tauber S. Ramirez-Rodriguez G. Kempermann G. Cannabinoid receptor CB1 mediates baseline and activity-induced survival of new neurons in adult hippocampal neurogenesis Cell Commun. Signal. 8 1 2010 12 25 20565726 PMC2898685
  145. Yang P.Y. Ho K.H. Chen H.C. Chien M.Y. Exercise training improves sleep quality in middle-aged and older adults with sleep problems: a systematic review J. Physiother. 58 2012 157 163 22884182
  146. Youssef N.A. Ege M. Angly S.S. Strauss J.L. Marx C.E. Is obstructive sleep apnea associated with ADHD? Ann. Clin. Psychiatry 23 2011 213 224 21808754

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S.
Affiliations
University of British Columbia (CA)
Corresponding author
Diamond, Adele
ORCID
Venue
Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2016-04
Volume
18
Pages
34-48
ISSN
1878-9293 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.dcn.2015.11.005
PMC
PMC5108631
OpenAlex
W2183085473
Cited by
1,177
References
54
Citations by year
2026: 139 · 2025: 179 · 2024: 115 · 2023: 135 · 2022: 134 · 2021: 128 · 2020: 117 · 2019: 92 · 2018: 73 · 2017: 47 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 1
FWCI
5.89
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • Canada Research Chairs (CRC -950-27472)
  • National Institute of Development Administration (DA037285)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords
executive function, inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility, cognitive training, transfer of training, aerobic exercise, individual differences, age differences, gender differences, emotional well-being, social needs, physical health
MeSH terms
Aging, Cognition, Humans, Memory, Short-Term, Sex Characteristics, Reproducibility of Results, Exercise, Biomedical Enhancement, Executive Function

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review