Technology Acceptance, Technological Self-Efficacy, and Attitude Toward Technology-Based Self-Directed Learning: Learning Motivation as a Mediator

“Hu and Bentler (1999) suggested that TLI and CFI should be greater than or equal to 0.90 to indicate good suitability, and RMSEA and SRMR should be less than 0.06 and 0.08, respectively.”

“The TAM was first proposed by Davis (1989) on the basis of the theory of reasoned action (TRA) advanced by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), which is used to explain the associations between the students’ technology acceptance of computer system, behavioral intention, and definite behavior of technology…”

“Venkatesh et al. (2003) expanded the TAM with empirical research by adding such factors as social influence, cognitive structure, and experience and the factor of subjective norm that had not been adopted in the original TAM.”

“In this study, structural equation modeling was used, and a two-stage approach to data analysis was adopted (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988).”

“According to Deci and Ryan (2000), intrinsic motivation helps to construct students’ experience of pleasure, enjoyment, and satisfaction, which in turn would further motivate their learning engagement (Dysvik and Kuvaas, 2013).”

“According to Teo et al. (2015, p.78), “attitude toward technology use has been examined in various models that attempt to explain individuals’ intention for technology use, including Technology Acceptance Model (TAM; Davis et al., 1989), TAM2 (Venkatesh and Davis, 2000), and Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Tec…”

“According to Teo et al. (2015, p.78), “attitude toward technology use has been examined in various models that attempt to explain individuals’ intention for technology use, including Technology Acceptance Model (TAM; Davis et al., 1989), TAM2 (Venkatesh and Davis, 2000), and Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Tec…”

“Additionally, Ajzen (2002) decomposed the constructs of perceived behavioral control into two components: controllability and learning motivation.”

“The questionnaire of attitude toward technology-based self-directed learning was adapted from Compeau and Higgins (1995) and Saadé and Galloway (2005).”

“…of controllability essentially resembles technological self-efficacy, with both used as a proxy of individuals’ control beliefs in technology use (Venkatesh and Davis,1996), whereas learning motivation means the individual’s judgment of the ability to attain designated types of performance…”

“To enhance the literature in the Asian countries, including China, which are characterized by different social and political ideology (Schwartz, 2006), a sample of Chinese undergraduate students was recruited to participate in the study, aiming to explore the specific relations between the…”

“For instance, Garrison (1997, p. 18) considered self-directed learning as “an approach where learners are motivated to assume personal responsibility and collaborative control of the cognitive (self-monitoring) and contextual (self-management) processes in constructing and confirming meaningful and…”

“…also reported higher levels of attitude toward technology-based self-directed learning, indicating that learning motivation could be considered as an important antecedent for attitude toward technology-based self-directed learning (Elliot, 2006; Schunk and Pajares, 2009; Elliot and Hulleman, 2017).”

“…to execute courses of actions to achieve intended outcome (Compeau and Higgins, 1995), is argued to have a significant positive influence on technology acceptance and use (Straub, 2009), and has been used as a proxy of individuals’ control beliefs in technology use (Venkatesh and Davis, 1996).”

“Intrinsically motivated students in technology-based self-directed learning not only seek external technology-enhanced resources but also develop idiosyncratic cognitive intention (Stafford et al., 2004).”

“Although previous studies highlighted the links of related variables of students’ technology acceptance (Teo, 2009; Lai, 2013), the other generating constructs (e.g., learning motivation) that may affect these associations have not been revealed.”

“…use (Kennedy et al., 2008), perceived usefulness of technology (Goodyear and Ellis, 2008; Teo, 2011), perception of the utility of technological resources (Clark et al., 2009), and the scaffolding available in supporting the technology-enhanced learning experience (McLoughlin and Lee, 2010).”

“Using this theory and analysis method, later in the educational landscape, there were studies that verified and explained the intention of students’ technology use (Teo, 2011) and the research of students’ independent use of technology for language learning (Lai, 2013), etc.”

“Specifically, students perceiving the convenience and availability in their interactive learning process report higher motivation, engagement, and persistence in learning (Wentzel et al., 2010; Tas, 2016).”

“…language learning environment, learners’ perception and acceptance of emerging technologies are important factors that affect their effective learning (McLoughlin and Lee, 2010; Huang and Liaw, 2018) and also one of the core factors that affect self-directed learning (Liaw et al., 2007).”

“In this study, the motivation factors described in Guilloteaux and Dörnyei (2008) and Kormos and Csizer (2014) were used, some of which were revised and developed in combination with the actual situation.”

“Liaw and Huang (2013) conducted a relatively successful theoretical innovation by integrating TAM and self-regulated learning theory, revealing the structural relationship between learners’ perceived usefulness, satisfaction, and self-regulated learning.”

“Previous studies have discussed learners’ acceptance of different types of technology, such as mobile technology (Pindeh et al., 2016; Nikou and Economides, 2017), computer-based communication technology (Park et al., 2014), social media (Hsieh et al., 2017), and MOOCS courses (Joo et al., 2018).”

“Nevertheless, some researchers identified that learners’ active use of technology for language learning does not necessarily guarantee satisfactory outcomes (Lai and Gu, 2011) and does not really reflect a sound understanding of their effective use (Oxford, 2009; Kennedy and Miceli, 2010).”

“Previous studies have discussed learners’ acceptance of different types of technology, such as mobile technology (Pindeh et al., 2016; Nikou and Economides, 2017), computer-based communication technology (Park et al., 2014), social media (Hsieh et al., 2017), and MOOCS courses (Joo et al., 2018).”

“Researchers have verified a significant positive influence of technological self-efficacy on technology acceptance and utilization (Celik and Yesilyurt, 2013) and regarded technological self-efficacy as a proxy of individuals’ control beliefs in technology use (Venkatesh and Davis, 1996).”

“In this study, the motivation factors described in Guilloteaux and Dörnyei (2008) and Kormos and Csizer (2014) were used, some of which were revised and developed in combination with the actual situation.”

“In the TAM (Davis et al., 1989), individuals’ attitude toward using technology (Teo, 2010, 2012; Jan and Contreras, 2011) was significantly predicted by perceived usefulness and ease of use of technology, which was in turn hypothesized to affect their behavioral intention to use technology and…”

“Mercer (2011) considered self-directed language learning behavior to be contingent on “a learner’s sense of agency involving their belief systems, and the control parameters of motivation, affect, metacognitive/ self-regulatory skills, as well as actual abilities and the affordances, actual and…”

“%) demonstrated by this questionnaire survey highlighted the issue of educational compatibility, as previous studies have established compatibility as an important predictor of information system acceptance (Hardgrave et al., 2003; Liao and Lu, 2008).”

“Few previous studies exploring the relation between technology climate and students’ perceived attitude toward technology-based self-directed learning have been conducted in samples of students from Asian countries, especially China (e.g., Teo, 2009; Lai et al., 2012).”

“…language learning environment, learners’ perception and acceptance of emerging technologies are important factors that affect their effective learning (McLoughlin and Lee, 2010; Huang and Liaw, 2018) and also one of the core factors that affect self-directed learning (Liaw et al., 2007).”

“…use (Kennedy et al., 2008), perceived usefulness of technology (Goodyear and Ellis, 2008; Teo, 2011), perception of the utility of technological resources (Clark et al., 2009), and the scaffolding available in supporting the technology-enhanced learning experience (McLoughlin and Lee, 2010).”

“In the TAM (Davis et al., 1989), individuals’ attitude toward using technology (Teo, 2010, 2012; Jan and Contreras, 2011) was significantly predicted by perceived usefulness and ease of use of technology, which was in turn hypothesized to affect their behavioral intention to use technology and…”

“The analysis of variance conducted to examine the mean differences between male and female in their decision to utilize technology for self-directed learning showed no significant gender differences, which is consistent with the previous study from Perse and Courtright (1993).”

“Technology-based self-directed learning, as an activity and event for learners to undertake their own learning responsibilities (Perry and Winne, 2006), not only entails the accessibility of technology but more importantly the acceleration of learning motivation.”

“Previous studies have discussed learners’ acceptance of different types of technology, such as mobile technology (Pindeh et al., 2016; Nikou and Economides, 2017), computer-based communication technology (Park et al., 2014), social media (Hsieh et al., 2017), and MOOCS courses (Joo et al., 2018).”

“Related studies also explored the relationship between learners’ technology acceptance and other variables, such as the relationship between technology acceptance and research constructs such as self-regulated learning, self-efficacy, and learning anxiety (Cho and Kim, 2013; Lai, 2013).”

“Based on TAM and motivational and social-cognitive frameworks, Ifinedo (2017) identified that students’ intrinsic motivation and attitudes toward blog use significantly determined students’ intention to continuously utilize blogs for learning.”

“SDT concentrates largely on how environments support or thwart people’s basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Jeno et al., 2019).”

“…that perceived support from technology use is particularly relevant for students’ learning motivation and their attitude toward technology-based self-directed learning probably because they are confronted with the increasing technological modernity of the educational landscape (Lai et al., 2016).”

“According to Teo et al. (2015, p.78), “attitude toward technology use has been examined in various models that attempt to explain individuals’ intention for technology use, including Technology Acceptance Model (TAM; Davis et al., 1989), TAM2 (Venkatesh and Davis, 2000), and Unified Theory of…”

“Chiu et al. (2007) analyzed the antecedents of web-based learning continuance, finding that students’ technology-based learning intention was mediated through their satisfaction with technology use for learning.”

“As such, in the educational field, technology acceptance is considered as a prerequisite for learners to adopt information technology to promote learning (Hsieh et al., 2017).”

“In the TAM (Davis et al., 1989), individuals’ attitude toward using technology (Teo, 2010, 2012; Jan and Contreras, 2011) was significantly predicted by perceived usefulness and ease of use of technology, which was in turn hypothesized to affect their behavioral intention to use technology and…”

“According to Deci and Ryan (2000), intrinsic motivation helps to construct students’ experience of pleasure, enjoyment, and satisfaction, which in turn would further motivate their learning engagement (Dysvik and Kuvaas, 2013).”

“In the TAM (Davis et al., 1989), individuals’ attitude toward using technology (Teo, 2010, 2012; Jan and Contreras, 2011) was significantly predicted by perceived usefulness and ease of use of technology, which was in turn hypothesized to affect their behavioral intention to use technology and…”

“As a major psychological concept, motivation is widely believed to be an important factor contributing to students’ acquisition outcomes of second or foreign language (Lamb and Arisandy, 2019).”

“Using this theory and analysis method, later in the educational landscape, there were studies that verified and explained the intention of students’ technology use (Teo, 2011) and the research of students’ independent use of technology for language learning (Lai, 2013), etc.”

“Researchers have found that undergraduate students do adopt technology for learning (Inozu et al., 2010), but their use of technologies often lacks sufficient effectiveness (Kennedy and Miceli, 2010).”

“Specifically, students perceiving the convenience and availability in their interactive learning process report higher motivation, engagement, and persistence in learning (Wentzel et al., 2010; Tas, 2016).”

“These findings confirmed that external technology environment is a critical element for triggering students’ learning motivation (Chen, 2020).”

“Learning Motivation as a Mediator Between the Technology Acceptance and Technological Self-Efficacy and Attitude Toward Technology-Based Self-Directed Learning Learning motivation is the sum of the incentives that positively force the choice of a specific behavior or purpose (Jarvis, 2005).”

“…students’ utilization of technology for learning, including competency in technology use (Kennedy et al., 2008), perceived usefulness of technology (Goodyear and Ellis, 2008; Teo, 2011), perception of the utility of technological resources (Clark et al., 2009), and the scaffolding available in…”

“Thereby, it is indispensable that language learners are equipped with the competence to engage in technology-based self-directed learning (Benson and Reinders, 2011; Reinders and Darasawang, 2012).”

“Previous studies (e.g., Teo, 2011; Teo and Wong, 2013) highlighted that students’ beliefs on the utility of technology influenced attitude toward technology use.”

“Previous studies have discussed learners’ acceptance of different types of technology, such as mobile technology (Pindeh et al., 2016; Nikou and Economides, 2017), computer-based communication technology (Park et al., 2014), social media (Hsieh et al., 2017), and MOOCS courses (Joo et al., 2018).”

“As such, Tate et al. (2015) posed the concern that current theories are deficient in constructs that could better annotate students’ behavioral intention on technology use from the perspective of attitude.”

“In the pace of network communication technology, the research on self-directed learning in open educational resource repositories via the use of information technology and the Internet (such as MOOCs and online courses) has also received great concern (Kim et al., 2019).”

“…perspective, individual motivation is defined as the degree of autonomy that individuals display during learning activity, and it falls into two major motivational orientations: (1) self-determined forms of intrinsic motivation; and (2) controlled forms of extrinsic motivation (Gan, 2020, p. 3).””

“…such as computer literacy, technological facilitating conditions, have been viewed as a prerequisite for learners’ effective use of technology (Hubbard and Romeo, 2012); on the other hand, learners’ willingness to engage in technology use for self-directed learning has been highlighted ((Kop…”

“Thereby, it is indispensable that language learners are equipped with the competence to engage in technology-based selfdirected learning (Benson and Reinders, 2011; Reinders and Darasawang, 2012).”

“…students’ technological learning motivation is reflected in their mastery and familiarity of technical skills, as is consistent with the study from Mew and Honey (2010), which indicated that technological learning motivation significantly influences students’ intention to use online learning…”

“Significantly, related studies have conformed to the positive and strong associations between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation (Gonzales, 2011).”

“It represents learners’ ownership and responsibility for their learning as it reflects their personal autonomy in handling and controlling their learning objectives (Pan, 2020).”

“For example, perceived ease of use was associated with self-efficacy in undergraduate students engaged in technol-ogy-supported self-directed learning (Pan, 2020).”

“Studies have proven the presence of an interaction between attitude toward technology and the adoption of AI, which was mostly found to be positive (Adelana et al., 2024; Ayanwale & Ndlovu, 2024; Cai et al., 2017; Kwak et al., 2022; Obenza et al., 2024; Pan, 2020).”

“In contrast, students with high technology or online self-efficacy beliefs show more self-regulated learning strategies, motivation, confidence, engagement, and satisfaction (Pan, 2020; Namaziandost & C¸akmak, 2020).”

“Students recognizing the benefits of greater technology use possessed a higher level of learning motivation, thus facilitating students’ technology-based self-directed learning [26].”

“The technology acceptance level and technological self-efficacy among students are also related to their attitudes toward SDLT (Pan, 2020).”

“The present results echo previous studies documenting technology acceptance, technological self-efficacy, and self-regulated learning (Pan, 2020).”

“In one model, self-efficacy is influenced by a person’s specific abilities, other individual factors, and environmental factors [68,69].”

“From the viewpoint of self-directed learning theory, students should have the self-ability of "ICT skills" and "ICT cognition", manifested in the self-assessment of AI information technology, transformation of learning needs and goals, selection of efficient strategies, and the ability to collect and evaluate (Loeng,…”

“…computer-and internet-related ability to carry out specific tasks and it has been concluded in many reviews and empirical studies that ICT self-efficacy plays an integral role in a computer-mediated learning environment (e.g., Moos and Azevedo, 2009; Kumar et al., 2020; Pan, 2020; Zheng and Li, 2020).”

“The rule of thumb that a factor load should be at least 0.30 in the relevant factor was followed in order for each item to be kept on the scale (Pallant 2005).”

“Research from (de Barba et al., 2016; Pan, 2020; Wang et al., 2021) reports that motivation plays a signi fi cant role in mediating the indirect effect of digital technology capabilities and supporting equipment on e-learning readiness.”

“Moreover, faculty members’ level of technology acceptance may moderate the extent to which AI literacy supports psychological need fulfillment (Pan, 2020).”

“Pan (2020) demonstrated that college students who were more confident in using tech were more open to trying AI tools, Liwanag and Galicia (2023) emphasized AI’s role in promoting self-directed learning, and Masry-Herzallah and Watted (2024) highlighted the positive effect of AI on engaging with…”

“Furthermore, personalized services significantly improve user experience and satisfaction because they are tailored to users’ individual needs and preferences (Pan 2020; Schmid and Dowling 2020; Kabalisa and Altmann 2021).”

“Online learning, E-learning, M-learning and other informal technological learning approaches provide students with more chances to explore selfdirected learning ways (King and He, 2006; Zandi et al., 2014; Hsu, 2016; Huang et al., 2020; Pan, 2020).”

“In the interim, Pan (2020) .”

“Studies have highlighted the role of technological self-efficacy, anxiety and attitude on the acceptance and actual usage of systems (Pan, 2020; Schlebusch, 2018).”

“Past studies have revealed that self‑directed learning ability is posi‑ tively associated with students’ usage behaviors of digital technologies, including GenAI tools (Esiyok et al., 2024; Gokcearslan, 2017; Pan, 2020).”

“However, unlike some previous research (e.g. Pan 2020), our study suggests that the direct in fl uence of intrinsic motivation on satisfaction is less pronounced than that of technological self-ef fi cacy and the contextual factors shaping online learning environments.”

“Prior AI related studies on enterprise management concentrated on analyzing from one employee view, such as the AI adoption (Pan, 2020; Bakir et al., 2025) or AI awareness (Kong et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2022) on employee behavior from the perspective of individual employees.”

“Technological self-efficacy is the conviction that one can successfully use technology to fulfill a learning task (Pan, 2020).”

“This finding is consistent with the other works (Pan, 2020; Zaineldeen et al., 2020), which indicate that attitudes toward technology, while influential, are often overshadowed by more immediate contextual factors such as usability and perceived usefulness.”

“Table 5 details the correlation coefficient analysis results of the six latent variables (Pan, 2020).”

“Regarding technology-based behavior, a number of meta-analyses have found that there is a good correlation between perceived behavioral control and the usefulness of certain technologies (Pan, 2020), which means that self-efficacy of technology is related to its usefulness.”

“Conversely, low technological self-efficacy may lead to avoidance of technology and decreased participation (Li et al., 2025b; Pan, 2020).”

“This tendency can be high for a few individuals and for some it is low [38].”

“Patil et al. (2020) assessed the association between behavioral intention and the actual use of mobile payments and demonstrated that behavioral intention drives the actual usage of users.”

“Previous studies have emphasized the importance of learning motivation as a mechanism that illustrates the relationship between students’ perception of technology environments and their attitude toward technology-based SDL (Pan, 2020).”

“Furthermore, students’ technological learning motivation is reflected in their mastery and familiarity with technical skills, thus significantly influencing their intention to use VR applications [71].”

“In the field of education, they are particularly important as they directly influence students’ willingness and effectiveness in using technology-assisted learning (Pan, 2020).”

“Learning motivation can be seen as a mediator between technological acceptance and self-efficacy on the task [35, 36].”

“In addition, students’ self-efficacy is related to the PU and PEOU of technology (Pan, 2020), through which learners can feel that technology is more useful and easier to use (Nur and Joviando, 2021).”

“This notion aligns with findings from Pan (2020), who noted that individuals with a predisposition for physical activity tend to engage more with technological tools designed to enhance their workouts.”

“Studies on students’ technological intentions have found a strong correlation between SE and SN 54,55 .”

“Past research showed that learners have a positive attitude positively correlated with technology usage (Pan, 2020; Tatli et al., 2019).”

“On the students’ side, technology can enhance students’ self-directed learning abilities [52].”

“If the learning or operating process of a new technology is easy, they will perceive the AI image generator as a practical and valuable tool because they can easily use its various functions during use, thus increasing their perception of the software’s usefulness [45].”

“Furthermore, the study of Pan (2020) also proves that students experiencing greater technology acceptance and technological self-efficacy showed higher attitudes toward technology-based self-directed learning.”

“…use and self-regulation (Pintrich and Schunk, 2002; Zusho et al., 2003) and that learning motivation functioned as a mediating mechanism illustrating relations between students’ perception of technology environments and their attitude toward technology-based self-directed learning (Pan, 2020).”

“According to the self-efficacy theory, a person’s perception of their ability to carry out particular activities impacts their emotional reactions and behavior (Pan, 2020).”

“…de los antecedentes más importantes del uso de las plataformas de e-learning y de la satisfacción de utilizarlas, © COMUNICAR, 74 (2023-1); e-ISSN: 1988-3293; OnlineFirst DOI: 10.3916/C74-2023-07 siendo los efectos directos de la autoeficacia positivos y significativos (Pan, 2020), apoyando la H1.”

“This aligns with the “risk–benefit acceptability” model, which highlights that risk evaluations are influenced not only by personal beliefs but also by how risks and benefits are framed and communicated within one’s social environment [17].”

“Pan (2020) used structural equations to demonstrate the positive effect of technical self-efficacy on motivation among undergraduate English students.”

“In addition, an individual’s adoption of a technological intervention is greatly influenced by their perception of technology self-efficacy, which is defined as an individual’s confidence in applying a technology to perform a task [20-23].”

“Previous studies have emphasized that independent learners should be motivated to learn, have clear goals, and be able to learn independently and continuously [21-23].”

“These findings align with previous research, highlighting the importance of engaging in self-directed learning environments in fostering positive attitudes toward new technologies (An et al., 2022; Mentz & Van Zyl, 2016; Pan, 2020).”

“In educational environments, it might be understood as the inclination of students or learners to utilize or not use an application or specialized technology, depending on the degree to which they believe it would improve their study performance (Pan, 2020 ; Alfadda & Mahdi, 2021).”

“So far, the influence of TSE has been explored for the use of technology in higher education and online classes (Huffman et al., 2013; Pan, 2020; Warden et al., 2020), and in healthcare (Rahman et al., 2016).”

“Past studies have shown that when a technology is easy to use, users are more likely to perceive it as useful, which in turn enhances their overall attitudes toward adoption (Ashraf et al., 2014; Pan, 2020; Yao et al., 2024).”

“As expected, we found that individuals’ attitudes toward IoT-enabled healthcare devices significantly affect their intention to use them (H 7 ), which is consistent with earlier studies conducted by Svenningsson, Höst 61 and Pan 62 .”