Life cycle modelling of extraction and processing of battery minerals—a parametric approach
Open accessAbstract
Sustainable battery production with low environmental footprints requires a systematic assessment of the entire value chain, from raw material extraction and processing to battery production and recycling. In order to explore and understand the variations observed in the reported footprints of raw battery materials, it is vital to re-assess the footprints of these material value chains. Identifying the causes of these variations by combining engineering and environmental system analysis expands our knowledge of the footprints of these battery materials. This article disaggregates the value chains of six raw battery materials (aluminum, copper, graphite, lithium carbonate, manganese, and nickel) and identifies the sources of variabilities (levers) for each process along each value chain. We developed a parametric attributional process-based life cycle model to explore the effect of these levers on the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the value chains, expressed in kg of CO2e. The parametric life cycle inventory model is used to conduct distinct life cycle assessments (LCA) for each material value chain by varying the identified levers within defined engineering ranges. 570 distinct LCAs are conducted for the aluminum value chain, 450 for copper, 170 for graphite, 39 for lithium carbonate via spodumene, 20 for lithium carbonate via brine, 260 for manganese, and 440 for nickel. Three-dimensional representations of these results for each value chain in kg of CO2e are presented as contour plots with gradient lines illustrating the intensity of lever combinations on the GHG emissions. The results of this study convey multidimensional insights into how changes in the lever settings of value chains yield variations in the overall GHG emissions of the raw materials. Parameterization of these value chains forms a flexible and high-resolution backbone, leading towards a more reliable life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries (LIB).
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Manjong et al. (2021) did not evaluate the significance of parameters such as ore grade decline and metal extraction rate from ores during smelting on LIB cell production GWP because of the scope of the study.
“the significance of parameters such as ore grade decline and metal extraction rate from ores during the smelting process on LIB cell production GWP was not evaluated because of the scope of the study.”
From Global warming potential of lithium-ion battery cell production: Determining influential primary and secondary raw material supply routes (2023) · cites this paper as Manjong et al., 2021
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- Authors
- Manjong, N. B., Usai, L., Burheim, O. S., & Strømman, A. H.
- Affiliations
- Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NO)
- Corresponding author
- Manjong, Nelson Bunyui
- Strømman, Anders Hammer
- Venue
- Batteries
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2021-08-24
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 57
- ISSN
- 2313-0105 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3193480845
- Cited by
- 58
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 9
- FWCI
- 2.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Batteries (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- FREYR AS, and Norwegian University of Science and Technology (9049250)
- EIT Innoenergy SE (02-2019-IP172-FREYR)
- SPIDER project (H2020 Grant Agreement n° 814389)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Extraction and Separation Processes
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Photovoltaic Systems and Sustainability
- Keywords
- battery raw materials, lithium-ion batteries, life cycle assessment, greenhouse gas emissions, aluminum, copper, graphite, lithium carbonate, manganese, nickel, spodumene, battery recycling, environmental footprint
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