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Cited by 24Extraction and Separation ProcessesEnvironmental Impact and SustainabilityPhotovoltaic Systems and Sustainability

Global warming potential of lithium-ion battery cell production: Determining influential primary and secondary raw material supply routes

Open access
Abdelbaky, Mohammad, Schwich, Lilian, Henriques, João, Friedrich, Bernd, Peeters, Jef R., Dewulf, Wim·2023·Cleaner Logistics and Supply Chain
DOI 10.1016/j.clscn.2023.100130
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Abstract

This study assesses the global warming potential (GWP) impacts of lithium-ion battery (LIB) recycling and subsequent cell production from primary and secondary raw materials. Furthermore, the study proposes multiple allocation strategies for the GWP impacts of LIB recycling, which range from 18 to 22 kg CO2 equivalent per kilowatt-hour NMC111 and NMC811 battery packs to determine the environmental burdens of secondary raw materials. The results demonstrate that using secondary raw materials could ideally reduce NMC111 and NMC811 cell production GWP by 30 %. In practice, GWP impact reductions will vary depending on factors, such as the contributions of primary production and recycling to battery raw material supply, and the market share of the different technologies employed within both primary production and recycling. Based on estimates for the availability of recycled raw materials to the European battery value chain, the sensitivity analysis methods identified NMC hydroxide, nickel sulfate, and battery-grade graphite as the most influential recycled raw materials on NMC111 cell production GWP. These materials received importance scores of 59%, 8%, and 6% respectively. Primary supply routes for cobalt sulfate received the highest importance score, followed by the primary supply routes of lithium carbonate and nickel sulfate. For NMC811 cells, nickel sulfate (34%), NMC hydroxide (27%) and graphite (8%) were identified as the most influential recycled raw materials, with the primary supply routes of nickel sulfate, lithium hydroxide and battery-grade graphite being the most influential.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study assesses global warming potential (GWP) of lithium-ion battery cell production using primary and secondary raw material supply routes for NMC111 and NMC811 cells. It finds that recycled feedstock can ideally reduce cell production GWP by 30%, but actual reductions depend on which primary and recycling routes dominate the supply mix.

Key findings

  • Using secondary raw materials could ideally reduce NMC111 and NMC811 cell production GWP by 30%.
  • For NMC111 cells, the most influential recycled raw materials were NMC hydroxide, nickel sulfate, and battery-grade graphite, with importance scores of 59%, 8%, and 6%, respectively; primary cobalt sulfate ranked highest among primary routes, followed by lithium carbonate and nickel sulfate.
  • For NMC811 cells, recycled nickel sulfate (34%), NMC hydroxide (27%), and graphite (8%) were most influential, while primary nickel sulfate, lithium hydroxide, and battery-grade graphite were the most influential primary routes.
  • Cell production GWP was estimated at 93.2 kg CO2 eq./kWh for NMC111 with 100% primary materials, falling to 71.4 kg CO2 eq./kWh with hydrometallurgical recycled feedstock and 63.7 kg CO2 eq./kWh with pyrometallurgical feedstock; NMC811 values were 85.3, 67.7, and 60 kg CO2 eq./kWh, respectively.

Methods

  • LCA of 1 kWh LIB cells for NMC111 and NMC811 chemistries, equivalent to 5.1 and 4.8 kg cells respectively, using the IPCC 2013 100-year climate change model as implemented in EF v3.0 and the Activity Browser software.
  • Parameterized life cycle inventories aggregate primary and secondary supply routes for Li, Ni, Co, Mn, and graphite, including hydrometallurgical solvent extraction, conventional pyrometallurgy, and enhanced pyrometallurgy, with physical and economic allocation strategies compared.
  • Global sensitivity analysis used Sobol variance-based indices, Morris screening, and random forest regression, with Monte Carlo iterations set at a ratio of 25 to the number of model input parameters plus one, and triangular uncertainty distributions for model parameters.

Limitations

  • The paper states that GWP is only one environmental impact category; other impacts may have different drivers, such as water depletion favoring different recycling or lithium production routes.
  • The paper states it did not analyze hydrometallurgical processing of slag from pyrometallurgical recycling, focused on representative rather than all possible recycling processes, and excluded additional primary supply routes and materials such as Al and Cu.
  • The text makes evident that economic allocation was not used for main results because recent price spikes in Li2CO3 and LIB raw materials were not available, and that some primary supply shares relied on assumptions or expert opinion where exact figures were unavailable.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.clscn.2023.100130

Cites

54 of 54 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 29 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data
    § A B S T R A C T · p. 1

    Using secondary raw materials could ideally reduce NMC111 and NMC811 cell production GWP by 30%.

    “The results demonstrate that using secondary raw materials could ideally reduce NMC111 and NMC811 cell production GWP by 30 %.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The 2040 recycling potential from the baseline sales scenario represents the maximum potential for closed-loop recycling.
  • Findingown data
    § A B S T R A C T · p. 1

    The GWP impacts of LIB recycling range from 18 to 22 kg CO2 equivalent per kilowatt-hour for NMC111 and NMC811 battery packs.

    “Furthermore, the study proposes multiple allocation strategies for the GWP impacts of LIB recycling, which range from 18 to 22 kg CO2 equivalent per kilowatt-hour NMC111 and NMC811 battery packs to determine the environmental burdens of secondary raw materials.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § A B S T R A C T · p. 1

    Based on estimates for the availability of recycled raw materials to the European battery value chain, the sensitivity analysis methods identified NMC hydroxide, nickel sulfate, and battery-grade graphite as the most influential recycled raw materials on NMC111 cell production GWP.

    “Based on estimates for the availability of recycled raw materials to the European battery value chain, the sensitivity analysis methods identified NMC hydroxide, nickel sulfate, and battery-grade graphite as the most influential recycled raw materials on NMC111 cell production GWP.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The 2040 recycling potential from the baseline sales scenario represents the maximum potential for closed-loop recycling.
  • Findingreasoning
    § 3.1. Recycling routes · p. 6

    The environmental footprint of recycling waste LIBs is 30% higher than results from Blömeke et al. 2022 for similar recycling routes.

    “This is 30 % higher than the results from a recent publication by (Bl ¨ omeke et al., 2022) that had recycling routes similar to the ones investigated in this study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bl ¨ omeke et al., 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingreasoning
    § 3.1. Recycling routes · p. 6

    Inter-cell chemistry pyrometallurgical recycling of waste LIBs results in the highest environmental impact.

    “Inter-cell chemistry pyrometallurgical recycling of waste LIBs results in the highest environmental impact due to the im­ pacts of smelting and matte refining in addition to the significant amounts of NiSO4 and CoSO4 needed to adjust the molar ratio of NMC hydroxides, as well as the increased co-precipitation process demand for NaOH, deionized water, and ammonia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 25
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 19

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § A B S T R A C T · p. 1

    For NMC811 cells, nickel sulfate (34%), NMC hydroxide (27%) and graphite (8%) were identified as the most influential recycled raw materials, with the primary supply routes of nickel sulfate, lithium hydroxide and battery-grade graphite being the most influential.

    “For NMC811 cells, nickel sulfate (34%), NMC hydroxide (27%) and graphite (8%) were identified as the most influential recycled raw materials, with the primary supply routes of nickel sulfate, lithium hydroxide and battery-grade graphite being the most influential.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The 2040 recycling potential from the baseline sales scenario represents the maximum potential for closed-loop recycling.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § A B S T R A C T · p. 1

    Primary supply routes for cobalt sulfate received the highest importance score, followed by the primary supply routes of lithium carbonate and nickel sulfate.

    “Primary supply routes for cobalt sulfate received the highest importance score, followed by the primary supply routes of lithium carbonate and nickel sulfate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § A B S T R A C T · p. 1

    NMC hydroxide, nickel sulfate, and battery-grade graphite received importance scores of 59%, 8%, and 6% respectively for NMC111 cell production GWP.

    “These materials received importance scores of 59%, 8%, and 6% respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The 2040 recycling potential from the baseline sales scenario represents the maximum potential for closed-loop recycling.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation
    § 3.1. Recycling routes · p. 6

    The finding that NaOH is likely the biggest driver of GWP impacts in all recycling routes is consistent with previous studies.

    “This finding is consistent with previous studies, such as (Rinne et al., 2021; Bl ¨ omeke et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Rinne et al., 2021 source

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    • cites Bl ¨ omeke et al., 2022

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given
    § 3.1. Recycling routes · p. 6

    Direct CO2 emissions and energy consumption are main drivers of GWP impacts in pyrometallurgical routes, whereas organic solvents, hydrogen peroxide and Na2CO3 are main drivers in the hydrometallurgical route.

    “Direct CO2 emissions and energy consumption are main drivers of GWP impacts in pyrometallurgical routes, whereas organic solvents, hydrogen peroxide and Na2CO3 are main drivers in the hydrometallurgical route.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Comparison of primary and secondary production routes for different raw materials · p. 8

    Roughly 30% of the GWP burdens from the physical allocation method are attributed to NaOH required for co-precipitation in matte refining, while 10% are due to energy consumption of smelting.

    “Roughly 30 % of the GWP burdens from the physical alloca­ tion method are attributed to NaOH required for co-precipitation in the matte refining process, while 10 % of the burdens are due to the energy consumption of the smelting process.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given
    § 3.2. Raw materials: primary and secondary supply routes · p. 6

    The primary supply routes with the highest GWP impacts for battery raw materials are CoSO4 production from land mining of Ni and Cu ores, NiSO4 production from laterite ores, and to a lesser extent battery-grade graphite production from natural graphite.

    “The primary supply with the highest GWP impacts for battery raw materials are CoSO4 production from land mining of Ni and Cu ores, NiSO4 production from laterite ores, and to a lesser extent battery-grade graphite production from natural graphite.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § 3.3. LIB cell production · p. 8

    The developed LCA model estimates mean GWP impact of producing 1 kWh NMC111 cells for closed-loop pyro- and hydrometallurgical recycled feedstock at 81.7 and 86.5 kg CO2 eq., with standard deviation 5.7 and 4.5 kg CO2-eq.

    “As shown in Fig. 5, the developed LCA model estimates the mean GWP impact of producing 1 kWh NMC111 cells for closed-loop pyro- and hydrometallurgical recy­ cled feedstock respectively, at 81.7 and 86.5 kg CO2 eq., with a standard deviation of 5.7 and 4.5 kg CO2-eq.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given
    § 3.2. Raw materials: primary and secondary supply routes · p. 6

    The use of different allocation strategies strongly determines the environmental burdens of recycled raw materials.

    “The use of different allocation strategies strongly determines the environmental burdens of recycled raw materials.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § 3.3. LIB cell production · p. 8

    The production of 1 kWh NMC811 cells is estimated to have an average GWP impact of 79.1 and 77.4 kg CO2 eq., with standard deviation 4.5 and 3.5 kg CO2 eq.

    “Similarly, the production of 1 kWh NMC811 cells is estimated to have an average GWP impact of 79.1 and 77.4 kg CO2 eq., with a standard deviation of 4.5 and 3.5 kg CO2 eq.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § 3.3. LIB cell production · p. 8

    For NMC811 cells, GWP for cell production is 85.3 kg CO2 eq./kWh with primary production of the 5 raw materials, 67.7 kg CO2 eq./kWh with recycled feedstock from hydrometallurgical recycling, and 60 kg CO2 eq./kWh with feedstock from pyrometallurgical recycling.

    “For NMC811 cells, the GWP for cell production is 85.3 kg CO2 eq./kWh when using primary production of the 5 raw materials, 67.7 kg CO2 eq./kWh when using recycled feedstock from hydrometallurgical recycling, and 60 kg CO2 eq./kWh with feedstock from pyrometallurgical recycling.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § 3.4. Global sensitivity analysis of cell production GWP · p. 8

    Both RFR and Sobol identify the most influential parameters for NMC111 cell production GWP to be: cell content of recycled feedstock NMC111 hydroxide from pyrometallurgical routes; cell content of primary supply of CoSO4 and Li2CO3 from spodumene; cell content of recycled NiSO4, graphite and Li2CO3 feedstock from hydrometallurgical route.

    “Both methods identify the most influential parameters to be: 1. The cell content of the recycled feedstock NMC111 hydroxide from the pyrometallurgical recycling routes. 2. The cell content of primary supply of CoSO4 and Li2CO3 from spodumene. 3. The cell content of recycled NiSO4, graphite and Li2CO3 feedstock from the hydrometallurgical recycling route.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § A B S T R A C T · p. 1

    Raw materials account for 70% of LIB cell production costs.

    “Currently, raw materials account for 70 % of LIB cell production costs (Moores, 2022)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Moores, 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 3.1. Recycling routes · p. 6

    The enhanced pyrometallurgical route's advantage is because a significant fraction of battery mass (Li and graphite) is removed in preprocessing, reducing smelting and matte refining impacts.

    “Reason for this is that a significant fraction of battery mass (Li and graphite) is removed in the preprocessing steps, reducing the impact of the smelting and matte refining processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 3.1. Recycling routes · p. 6

    The high environmental impact of inter-cell chemistry pyrometallurgical recycling is due to smelting and matte refining impacts plus significant NiSO4 and CoSO4 needed to adjust NMC hydroxide molar ratio and increased co-precipitation demand for NaOH, deionized water, and ammonia.

    “Inter-cell chemistry pyrometallurgical recycling of waste LIBs results in the highest environmental impact due to the im­ pacts of smelting and matte refining in addition to the significant amounts of NiSO4 and CoSO4 needed to adjust the molar ratio of NMC hydroxides, as well as the increased co-precipitation process demand for NaOH, deionized water, and ammonia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § 2.2.1. Lithium · p. 2

    Li is extracted from three main sources: spodumene pegmatite rocks, evaporative brines, and unusual deposits from both rocks and brines.

    “Li is extracted from three main sources; spodumene pegmatite rocks, evaporative brines, and unusual deposits from both rocks and brines (Kesler et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kesler et al., 2012 source

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    Premisecitation
    § A B S T R A C T · p. 2

    Pell & Lindsay (2022) applied a local sensitivity analysis, which limited examination of the influence of market share among different primary supply routes, and excluded recycled raw materials from their analysis.

    “the study applied a local sensitivity analysis, which limited the examination of the influence of market share among different primary supply routes. Additionally, recycled raw materials were excluded from their analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pell & Lindsay, 2022

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    Premisecitation
    § A B S T R A C T · p. 2

    The new EU battery regulation requires EV batteries to contain at least 12% recycled lithium, 15% nickel, and 26% cobalt by 2036.

    “the new EU battery regulation requires EV batteries to contain at least 12 % recycled lithium (Li) content, 15 % Ni, and 26 % cobalt (Co) by 2036 (European Parliament, 2023).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites European Parliament, 2023

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 2.1. Assessing GWP impacts of LIB cell production · p. 2

    NMC111 cells dominated new EV sales in Europe until 2015 and will have a considerable share in the emerging recycling waste stream.

    “NMC111 cells, on the one hand, dominated new EV sales in Europe until 2015 and will have a considerable share in the emerging recycling waste stream.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Abdelbaky et al., 2021 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites IEA, 2023

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § 2.3.2. Pyrometallurgical recycling · p. 5

    In conventional pyrometallurgical recycling, metals with low oxygen affinity, such as Ni and Co, are recovered together as an alloy known as 'matte'.

    “metals with low oxygen affinity, such as Ni and Co, are recovered together as an alloy known as ' matte. '”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Windisch-Kern et al., 2021 source

      Not checked in the free run.

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    Premisecitation
    § 2.3.2. Pyrometallurgical recycling · p. 5

    In conventional pyrometallurgical recycling, Li has a high affinity for oxygen and is therefore fixed in the solid slag, while graphite in the anode powder is burnt and not recovered.

    “Li has a high affinity for oxygen and is therefore fixed in the solid slag, while graphite in the anode powder is burnt and not recovered (Zhang et al., 2019b; Ma et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Zhang et al., 2019b

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    • cites Ma et al., 2019

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § 2.2.2. Nickel · p. 3

    PM nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton zone in the North Pacific contain roughly 9 billion tons of strategic battery raw materials, including Mn, Ni, Co, and Cu.

    “PM nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton zone in the North Pacific contain roughly 9 billion tons of strategic battery raw materials, including Mn, Ni, Co, and copper (Cu).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morgan, 2017

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § A B S T R A C T · p. 2

    Nuances in the market share of different primary and secondary supply routes were not sufficiently examined in the literature.

    “As nuances in the market share of different primary and secondary supply routes were not sufficiently examined in the literature”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 2.1. Assessing GWP impacts of LIB cell production · p. 2

    1 kWh of LIB cells is equivalent to 5.1 and 4.8 kg of NMC111 and NMC811 cells, respectively.

    “the production of 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) LIB cells, which is equivalent to 5.1 and 4.8 kg NMC111 and NMC811 cells, respectively (Crenna et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Crenna et al., 2021 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 2.2.2. Nickel · p. 3

    Ni is the battery raw material with the least available reserves and highest reserves depletion rate.

    “Ni is the battery raw material with the least available reserves and highest reserves depletion rate (Abdelbaky et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Abdelbaky et al., 2022 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § A B S T R A C T · p. 2

    Manjong et al. (2021) did not evaluate the significance of parameters such as ore grade decline and metal extraction rate from ores during smelting on LIB cell production GWP because of the scope of the study.

    “the significance of parameters such as ore grade decline and metal extraction rate from ores during the smelting process on LIB cell production GWP was not evaluated because of the scope of the study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Manjong et al., 2021 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § A B S T R A C T · p. 2

    Xu et al. (2022) used averaged LCIs for primary Ni and Co production, and did not include either electrolytic Mn production routes or secondary raw materials.

    “this study used averaged LCIs for primary Ni and Co production, and did not include either electrolytic manganese (Mn) production routes or secondary raw materials.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Xu et al., 2022

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given
    § 4.3. Limitations and future research · p. 11

    The study focused on representative pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical recycling processes, while in reality there are numerous extraction methods, each with potential to significantly influence the outcomes of the LCA model and sensitivity analysis.

    “The third limitation of the study is its focus on representative pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical recycling processes, while in reality, there are numerous extraction methods, each with the potential to significantly influence the outcomes of the LCA model and, in particular, the sensitivity analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § 2.4. Analysis of sensitivity and importance of LIB raw materials · p. 6

    Random forest regression has the advantage of being able to handle high-dimensional data by using decision trees to classify variables.

    “RFR has the advantage of being able to handle highdimensional data (Rodriguez-Galiano et al., 2015), by using decision trees to classify variables.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rodriguez-Galiano et al., 2015 source

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    Interpretationown data
    § 4.1. Interpretation of sensitivity analysis results · p. 10

    The shift towards cathode materials rich in Ni and low in Co amplifies the impact of NiSO4 primary and secondary supply routes on cell production GWP, while diminishing the influence of CoSO4 supply routes.

    “The shift towards cathode materials rich in Ni and low in Co am­ plifies the impact of NiSO4 primary and secondary supply routes on cell production GWP, while diminishing the influence of CoSO4 supply routes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § 3.3. LIB cell production · p. 8

    The recycled feedstock from pyrometallurgical recycling results in a lower GWP for cell production because the main recycling product is NMC111 hydroxide, which can directly react with Li2CO3 to produce cathode active material.

    “On the one hand, the recycled feedstock from pyrometallurgical recycling results in a lower GWP for cell production as the main recycling product is NMC111 hydroxide, which can directly react with Li2CO3 to produce cathode active material.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given
    § 4.3. Limitations and future research · p. 11

    The study did not analyze the environmental impacts of hydrometallurgical processing of slag from pyrometallurgical recycling.

    “the study did not analyze the environmental impacts of hydrometallurgical processing of slag from pyrometallurgical recycling.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 4.3. Limitations and future research · p. 11

    Hydrometallurgical treatment of slags will result in additional recovery of Li and Mn, while it can be expected to go along with higher energy and chemicals demands than early-stage lithium recovery.

    “hydrometallurgical treatment of slags will result in additional recovery of Li and Mn, while it can be expected to go along with higher energy and chemicals demands than early-stage lithium recovery.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bl ¨ omeke et al., 2022

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § 4.3. Limitations and future research · p. 11

    GWP is just one aspect of the full environmental impacts of cell production, and other impact categories may have different drivers.

    “GWP is just one aspect of the full environmental impacts of cell production, and other impact categories may have different drivers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Comparison of primary and secondary production routes for different raw materials · p. 8

    The Li2CO3 allocation analysis did not include recent price spikes in the market price of Li2CO3 because more recent USGS price estimates are not yet available.

    “However, it is important to note that this analysis did not include recent price spikes in the market price of Li2CO3, as more recent USGS price estimates are not yet available.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation
    § 2.4. Analysis of sensitivity and importance of LIB raw materials · p. 6

    In general, global sensitivity analysis methods are preferred to estimate the uncertainty of the model output.

    “In general, global sensitivity analysis methods are preferred to estimate the uncertainty of the model output (Xu & Gertner, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Xu & Gertner, 2011

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § 2.4. Analysis of sensitivity and importance of LIB raw materials · p. 6

    One of the main goals of carrying out a sensitivity analysis in LCA studies is to test the robustness of allocation approaches and parameter values.

    “One of the main goals of carrying out a sensitivity analysis in LCA studies is to test the robustness of allocation approaches and parameter values (Guo & Murphy, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Guo & Murphy, 2012

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Comparison of primary and secondary production routes for different raw materials · p. 8

    Due to absence of data on recent price spikes in LIB raw materials, physical allocation factors are applied to recycled feedstock to derive results in upcoming sections.

    “Due to the absence of data on the recent price spikes in LIB raw materials, the physical allocation factors are applied to the recycled feedstock to derive the results in the up­ coming sections.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § 2.4. Analysis of sensitivity and importance of LIB raw materials · p. 6

    The screening Morris method is computationally efficient and can analyze a large number of parameters.

    “Unlike the Sobol method, the MM is compu­ tationally efficient and can analyze a large number of parameters (Sepulveda et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sepulveda et al., 2013 source

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39 of 39

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The 2040 recycling potential from the baseline sales scenario represents the maximum potential for closed-loop recycling.

    “The use of the 2040 recycling potential is chosen as it represents the maximum potential for closed-loop recycling, taking into account the expected exponential growth in EV sales, extended battery life in vehicle use, and potential for second use.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Al from the cell casing and current collectors is diluted in the copper foil fraction or precipitated as waste in the solvent extraction step.

    “Al from the cell casing and current collectors is assumed to be diluted in the copper foil fraction or precipitated as waste in the solvent extraction step.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The electricity supply for electrolytic MnSO4 production is the average electricity mix from the Chinese State Grid Corporation.

    “assuming that it is supplied by the average elec­ tricity mix from the Chinese State Grid Corporation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There will be an anticipated surge in graphite demand within the European EV sector as anode active material for various cell chemistries beyond NMC, such as lithium iron phosphate and Co-free Li-rich layered oxides.

    “However, the anticipated surge in graphite demand within the European EV sector as anode active material for various cell M. Abdelbaky et al. chemistries beyond NMC, such as lithium iron phosphate and Co-free Lirich layered oxides, limits the capacity of recycled material to meet this demand.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Laterite ores are anticipated to have a large market share in future Ni supply and tend to have higher GHG emissions.

    “the anticipated large market share of laterite ores in future Ni supply (which tend to have higher GHG emissions)”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The EU battery regulation sets no recycled content targets for graphite or Mn.

    “the regulation sets no targets for either graphite or Mn.”
6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Tytgat, J. (2022). The road to climate-neutral EV batteries: opportunities and regulatory framework. Presented at LCE 2022 Conference. Leuven, Belgium.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Abdelbaky, M., Schwich, L., Henriques, J., Friedrich, B., Peeters, J. R., & Dewulf, W.
Affiliations
  • Flanders Make (Belgium) (BE)
  • RWTH Aachen University (DE)
  • KU Leuven (BE)
Corresponding author
Abdelbaky, Mohammad
ORCID
Venue
Cleaner Logistics and Supply Chain
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2023-12
Volume
9
Pages
100130
ISSN
2772-3909 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.clscn.2023.100130
OpenAlex
W4389368690
Cited by
24
References
54
Citations by year
2026: 3 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 11
FWCI
2.37
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Cleaner Logistics and Supply Chain (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Lirias (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • European Commission
  • European Union's Research and Innovation (814464)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Extraction and Separation Processes
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Photovoltaic Systems and Sustainability
Keywords
lithium-ion battery recycling, global warming potential, battery cell manufacturing, secondary raw materials, LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2, NMC811, cobalt sulfate, nickel sulfate, lithium carbonate, battery value chain

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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