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Cited by 76Misinformation and Its ImpactsSocial and Intergroup PsychologyTerrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence

Increased conspiracy beliefs among ethnic and Muslim minorities

Open access
van Prooijen, Jan‐Willem, Staman, Jaap, Krouwel, André P.M.·2018·Applied Cognitive Psychology
DOI 10.1002/acp.3442
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

In the present study, we tested whether Muslim minority members are more susceptible to conspiracy theories than majority members in the Netherlands. We examined conspiracy theories that are relevant (portraying the Muslim community as victim or Jewish people as perpetrators) and irrelevant for participants' Muslim identity (about the 2007 financial crisis, and other theories such as that the moon landings were fake). Results revealed that Muslims believed both identity‐relevant and irrelevant conspiracy theories more strongly than non‐Muslims. These differences could not be attributed to the contents of Muslim faith: Ethnic minority status exerted similar effects independent of Muslim identity. Instead, evidence suggested that feelings of both personal and group‐based deprivation independently contribute to belief in conspiracy theories. We conclude that feelings of deprivation lead marginalized minority members to perceive the social and political system as rigged, stimulating belief in both identity‐relevant and irrelevant conspiracy theories.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a Dutch survey, Muslim and ethnic minority participants reported stronger belief in conspiracy theories than majority/non-Muslim participants, including theories irrelevant to Muslim identity. Both personal deprivation (low belonging in Dutch society) and group-based deprivation independently predicted conspiracy beliefs.

Key findings

  • Muslims believed conspiracy theories more strongly than non-Muslims across all four indices: Muslim theories (M = 4.17 vs. 2.74), Jewish theories (3.57 vs. 2.29), economic theories (3.74 vs. 3.10), and other theories (3.12 vs. 2.51).
  • Ethnic minorities similarly believed more strongly than Dutch Caucasian participants: Muslim theories (M = 4.00 vs. 2.70), Jewish theories (3.41 vs. 2.26), economic theories (3.71 vs. 2.98), and other theories (3.08 vs. 2.45).
  • In hierarchical regressions, both ethnicity and Muslim identity were independent significant predictors of all four conspiracy indices; Step 2 ΔR² was .28 for Muslim theories, .29 for Jewish theories, .14 for economic theories, and .12 for other theories.
  • In Sample 1, both lower belonging in Dutch society and higher group-based deprivation independently predicted all four conspiracy indices (Step 2 ΔR² = .15, .13, .16, and .12, respectively); a Muslim identity × conspiracy theory interaction was significant, F(3, 340) = 19.86, p < .001, η² = .15, but ethnicity × conspiracy theory was not, F < 1.

Methods

  • Two parallel Dutch samples collected May/June 2016 via Kieskompas: a DENK-voter panel expected to include many Muslim minorities (Sample 1, n = 225) and a snowballed social-media sample (Sample 2, n = 130); final N = 355 after excluding missing values on conspiracy belief (180 men, 168 women, 7 not indicated; M age = 27.33, SD = 9.41).
  • Participants rated 13 conspiracy theories on 1–5 scales; items were aggregated into Muslim, Jewish, economic, and other conspiracy indices. Ethnicity and Muslim identity were effect-coded; controls were gender, age, political ideology, and education.
  • Personal deprivation was measured only in Sample 1 as belongingness in the Netherlands (0–100 slider), and group-based deprivation was measured with four items (α = 0.81). Main analyses were hierarchical regressions, with additional Sample 2 minority-status analyses and a 2 × 2 × 4 ANOVA.

Limitations

  • The paper states that it offers only one study; the evidence for personal and group-based deprivation is correlational, so reverse causality cannot be excluded.
  • The paper states that much of the minority sample likely experienced relatively high deprivation because of affiliation with a party focused on Muslim rights, leaving open whether non-marginalized minorities would differ from majority members.
  • Evident from the text: deprivation measures were collected only in Sample 1; Sample 2 contained only four Muslim participants and Sample 1 only 10 majority-group members, limiting separate ethnicity/Muslim analyses; all measures were self-report and cross-sectional.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1002/acp.3442

Cites

30 of 30 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 12 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Muslims believed both identity-relevant and irrelevant conspiracy theories more strongly than non-Muslims.

    “Results revealed that Muslims believed both identity-relevant and irrelevant conspiracy theories more strongly than non-Muslims.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Step 2 was significant for all conspiracy theories.

    “More important for the present purposes, Step 2 was significant for all conspiracy theories: for Muslim conspiracy theories (ΔR 2 = 0.28), F (2, 327) = 66.70, p < 0.001;”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Belongingness and group-based deprivation were moderately and negatively correlated (r = -0.25, p < 0.001).

    “Belongingness and group-based deprivation were moderately and negatively correlated (r = -0.25,p < 0.001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Minority status was significant for all conspiracy theories in Sample 2.

    “Minority status (Step 2), then, was significant for all conspiracy theories: Muslim conspiracy theories (ΔR 2 = 0.06), F (1, 113) = 8.42, p = 0.004 (majority M = 2.37, SD = 1.10; minority M = 3.26, SD = 1.33);”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Dutch Muslims believe conspiracy theories more strongly than non-Muslims.

    “The present study found that Dutch Muslims believe conspiracy theories more strongly than non-Muslims.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 27
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 17
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Feelings of both personal and group-based deprivation independently contribute to belief in conspiracy theories.

    “Instead, evidence suggested that feelings of both personal and group-based deprivation independently contribute to belief in conspiracy theories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Low belonging reflects feelings that one is not a full-fledged Dutch citizen (belongingness is a valid proxy for personal deprivation).

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Ethnic minority status and Muslim identity independently predict stronger belief in conspiracy theories.

    “These differences could not be attributed to the contents of Muslim faith: Ethnic minority status exerted similar effects independent of Muslim identity.”
    • Also stated in: § 4.1 | Ethnicity and Muslim identity · plain
      “Both ethnicity and Muslim identity were independent significant predictors in the regression model of all conspiracy theories (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Sample 1, Step 2 of the regression (belonging and group-based deprivation) was significant for all four conspiracy theories, with ΔR2 of 0.15 (Muslim), 0.13 (Jewish), 0.16 (economic) and 0.12 (other).

    “Step 2, then, was significant for all four conspiracy theories: for Muslim conspiracy theories (ΔR 2 = 0.15), F (2, 194) = 17.54, p < 0.001, for Jewish conspiracy theories (ΔR 2 = 0.13), F (2, 194) = 15.10,p < 0.001, for economic conspiracy theories (ΔR 2 = 0.16), F (2, 194) = 19.11,p < 0.001, and for other conspiracy theories (ΔR 2 = 0.12), F (2, 194) = 13.76,p < 0.001.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Ethnic and Muslim minorities believe conspiracy theories more strongly, both for theories directly relevant for Muslim identity and for theories unspecific for ethnic or Muslim minorities.

    “The means are displayed in Table 2 and indicate that ethnic and Muslim minorities believe conspiracy theories more strongly, both for theories that are directly relevant for participants' Muslim identity (Muslim and Jewish conspiracy theories) and for theories unspecific for ethnic or Muslim minorities (economic and other conspiracy theories).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Sample 1, Step 1 of the regression was nonsignificant for Muslim, Jewish and economic conspiracy theories but significant for other conspiracy theories.

    “Step 1 was nonsignificant for Muslim conspiracy theories (R 2 = 0.04), F (5, 196) = 1.64, p = 0.150, Jewish conspiracy theories (R 2 = 0.02), F < 1, and economic conspiracy theories (R 2 = 0.05), F (5, 196) = 1.87, p = 0.102, and it was significant for other conspiracy theories (R 2 = 0.06), F (5, 196) = 2.44, p = 0.036.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Sample 1, both decreased feelings of belonging in Dutch society and increased group-based deprivation independently predict belief in all four conspiracy theories (Muslim, Jewish, economic, and other).

    “As can be seen in Table 3, both forms of deprivation (i.e., decreased belonging and increased group-based deprivation) independently predict belief in all four conspiracy theories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the entire sample, the education × minority status interaction was nonsignificant for Muslim and Jewish conspiracy theories but significant for economic and other conspiracy theories.

    “The education × minority status interaction in the entire sample was nonsignificant for Muslim and Jewish conspiracy theories (β = -0.06 and β = -0.06,respectively; ps > 0.23) but significant for economic (β = -0.17,p = 0.001) and other conspiracy theories (β = -0.13,p = 0.014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A 2 (Muslim identity) × 2 (ethnicity) × 4 (conspiracy theory) analysis revealed a significant Muslim identity × conspiracy theory interaction but no ethnicity × conspiracy theory interaction.

    “This revealed a significant Muslim identity × conspiracy theory interaction, F (3, 340) = 19.86,p < 0.001, η 2 = 0.15, but no ethnicity × conspiracy theory interaction, F < 1.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Sample 2, Step 1 of the regression was significant for all four conspiracy theories, driven by strong education effects on all dependent variables.

    “Step 1 was significant for all four conspiracy theories (0.12 < R 2 s < 0.24); 4.22 < F s(4, 114) < 8.97; 0.004 < ps < 0.001, which was due to strong education effects on all dependent variables (-0.43 < βs < -0.31; ps < 0.001)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Ethnic minority status exerted effects on conspiracy beliefs similar to those of Muslim identity, independent of Muslim identity.

    “Ethnic minority status exerted similar effects on conspiracy beliefs, independent of Muslim identity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    On the dropped AIDS-conspiracy item, the effects of ethnicity and Muslim identity were significant and in the predicted direction.

    “It is noteworthy, however, that on this item the effects of ethnicity and Muslim identity were significant, and in the predicted direction (ps < 0.003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Both levels of deprivation are associated with negative emotions and feelings of injustice, but they predict different outcome variables.

    “Whereas both levels of deprivation are associated with negative emotions (e.g., anger) and feelings of injustice, they predict different outcome variables.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Smith, Pettigrew, Pippin, & Bialosiewicz, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Personal deprivation is particularly associated with individual-level variables, but group-based deprivation is particularly associated with group-level variables.

    “For instance, personal deprivation is particularly associated with individual-level variables (e.g., self-perceptions), but group-based deprivation is particularly associated with group-level variables (e.g., collective action; see Smith, Pettigrew, Pippin, & Bialosiewicz, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Smith, Pettigrew, Pippin, & Bialosiewicz, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Preliminary findings are mixed and suggest that while ethnic minorities are particularly susceptible to racially relevant conspiracy theories, they also show an increased susceptibility to at least some conspiracy theories irrelevant for race.

    “Preliminary findings are mixed and suggest that while ethnic minorities are particularly susceptible to racially relevant conspiracy theories, they also show an increased susceptibility to at least some conspiracy theories irrelevant for race (Goertzel, 1994).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Goertzel, 1994

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Most previous research on this topic is restricted by focusing on explicitly racial conspiracy theories involving a White plot that harms the Black community.

    “Most previous research on this topic is restricted, however, by focusing on explicitly racial conspiracy theories involving a White plot that harms the Black community.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Feelings of deprivation lead marginalized minority members to perceive the social and political system as rigged, stimulating belief in both identity-relevant and irrelevant conspiracy theories.

    “We conclude that feelings of deprivation lead marginalized minority members to perceive the social and political system as rigged, stimulating belief in both identity-relevant and irrelevant conspiracy theories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Low belonging reflects feelings that one is not a full-fledged Dutch citizen (belongingness is a valid proxy for personal deprivation).

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Minority members are more likely than majority group members to assume that the social and political system they live in is rigged, prompting beliefs in both identity-relevant and irrelevant conspiracy theories.

    “These arguments suggest that minority members are more likely than majority group members to assume that the social and political system they live in is rigged, prompting beliefs in both identity-relevant and irrelevant conspiracy theories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The final sample yields 95% power for a small-to-medium effect size (f = .04).

    “This final sample yields 95% power for a small-to-medium effect size ( ffoot_0 = .04).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    We stopped collecting data once no further responses came in, and prior to any analyses.

    “We stopped collecting data once no further responses came in, and prior to any analyses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These suspected plots may have goals that are not only racial but also nonracial in content.

    “We argue that these suspected plots may have goals that are not only racial but also nonracial in content.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    We selected only those participants with no missing values on our key dependent variable, rendering a final sample of 355 participants.

    “We therefore selected only those participants with no missing values on our key dependent variable (belief in conspiracy theories), rendering a final sample of 355 participants (180 men, 168 women, 7 not indicated; M age = 27.33 years; SD = 9.41; Sample 1 n = 225, Sample 2 n = 130).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Two additional items were combined into an index of Jewish conspiracy theories with a correlation of r = 0.55, p < 0.001.

    “Two additional items were combined into an index of Jewish conspiracy theories (”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    All results reported below were similar if we ran the analyses without control variables.

    “All results reported below were similar if we ran the analyses without control variables.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Two items were aggregated into an index of Muslim conspiracy theories with a correlation of r = 0.77, p < 0.001.

    “Two items were aggregated into an index of Muslim conspiracy theories (”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Data collection was coordinated by Kieskompas, which acts in line with strict regulations of the Dutch Authority for the Protection of Personal Information and with ethical norms of VU Amsterdam.

    “Data collection was coordinated by”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Both forms of deprivation promote the perception that majority group representatives are evil entities that are involved in malevolent plots.

    “It therefore stands to reason that both forms of deprivation promote the perception that majority group representatives are evil entities that are involved in malevolent plots.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The regression models revealed no evidence for multicollinearity (all variance inflation factors <1.90).

    “The regression models revealed no evidence for multicollinearity (all variance inflation factors <1.90).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The remaining five items formed an index of other conspiracy theories with α = 0.83.

    “The remaining five items formed an index of other conspiracy theories (α = 0.83;”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Economic conspiracy theories were measured with four items with α = 0.84.

    “We measured economic conspiracy theories with four items (α = 0.84;”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    Both forms of deprivation have one common denominator: Members of a dominant majority group are responsible for the marginalized positions that perceivers and their group have in society.

    “Both forms of deprivation have one common denominator: Members of a dominant majority group are responsible for the marginalized positions that perceivers and their group have in society.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    It was impossible to analyze ethnicity and Muslim identity separately because Sample 2 contained only four Muslim participants.

    “Note that it was impossible to analyze ethnicity and Muslim identity separately, as Sample 2 contained only four Muslim participants.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The contents of Muslim faith are a poor explanation for the higher conspiracy beliefs of Muslims, because ethnic minority status exerted similar effects independent of Muslim identity.

    “Furthermore, the contents of Muslim faith are a poor explanation for these findings: Ethnic minority status exerted similar effects on conspiracy beliefs, independent of Muslim identity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The present study was well-powered.

    “Yet our study was well-powered and displayed effects that are consistent with previous insights on the relationship between minorities and conspiracy theories specifically”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The effects of Muslim identity, but not of ethnicity, are stronger for identity-relevant than for identity-irrelevant conspiracy theories.

    “This suggests that the effects of Muslim identity, but not ethnicity, are stronger for identity-relevant than identity-irrelevant conspiracy theories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Both forms of deprivation independently contribute to a perception of the social and political system as rigged, which stimulates belief in both identity-relevant and identity-irrelevant conspiracy theories.

    “These findings suggest that both forms of deprivation independently contribute to a perception of the social and political system as rigged, stimulating belief in both identity-relevant and irrelevant conspiracy theories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The empirical evidence for the explanatory variables (personal and group-based deprivation) is correlational, so reverse causality cannot be excluded.

    “One limitation of our approach is that the empirical evidence for our explanatory variables-personal and group-based deprivation-is correlational.Based on the study presented here, it is hence impossible to exclude the possibility of reverse causality”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Sample 1 yields 95% power for a small-to-medium effect size (f2 = 0.07).

    “This sample yields 95% power for a small-to-medium effect size ( f 2 = 0.07).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Conspiracy theories are common among both ethnic and Muslim minorities.

    “We conclude that conspiracy theories are common among both ethnic and Muslim minorities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    A similar analysis on Sample 1 is problematic because Sample 1 contains only 10 majority group members (Caucasian and non-Muslim).

    “Also note that a similar analysis on Sample 1 is problematic, as Sample 1 only contains 10 majority group members (i.e., Caucasian and non-Muslim).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
39 of 39

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Hostile intergroup relations are associated with conspiracy theories.

    “It has hence been noted that hostile intergroup relations are associated with conspiracy theories.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Low belonging reflects feelings that one is not a full-fledged Dutch citizen (belongingness is a valid proxy for personal deprivation).

    “Finally, we measured belonging in Dutch society as a proxy for personal deprivation (i.e., low belonging reflects feelings that one is not a full-fledged Dutch citizen) and group-based deprivation.”
2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • ConsistentF(4, 329) = 3.79reported p = .005 · recomputed p = .005

    “F (4, 329) = 3.79, p = .005”

  • ConsistentF(4, 329) = 3.47reported p = .009 · recomputed p = .009

    “F (4, 329) = 3.47, p = .009”

  • ConsistentF(4, 330) = 4.89reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (4, 330) = 4.89, p = .001”

  • ConsistentF(4, 330) = 8.19reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (4, 330) = 8.19, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(2, 327) = 66.7reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (2, 327) = 66.70, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(2, 327) = 71.89reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (2, 327) = 71.89,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(2, 328) = 29.24reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (2, 328) = 29.24,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(2, 328) = 25.34reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (2, 328) = 25.34,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 113) = 8.42reported p = .004 · recomputed p = .004

    “F (1, 113) = 8.42, p = .004”

  • ConsistentF(1, 113) = 5.51reported p = .021 · recomputed p = .021

    “F (1, 113) = 5.51, p = .021”

  • ConsistentF(1, 113) = 8.04reported p = .005 · recomputed p = .005

    “F (1, 113) = 8.04, p = .005”

  • ConsistentF(1, 113) = 5.43reported p = .022 · recomputed p = .022

    “F (1, 113) = 5.43, p = .022”

  • ConsistentF(5, 196) = 1.64reported p = .15 · recomputed p = .151

    “F (5, 196) = 1.64, p = .150”

  • ConsistentF(5, 196) = 1.87reported p = .102 · recomputed p = .101

    “F (5, 196) = 1.87, p = .102”

  • ConsistentF(5, 196) = 2.44reported p = .036 · recomputed p = .036

    “F (5, 196) = 2.44, p = .036”

  • ConsistentF(2, 194) = 17.54reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (2, 194) = 17.54, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(2, 194) = 15.1reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (2, 194) = 15.10,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(2, 194) = 19.11reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (2, 194) = 19.11,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(2, 194) = 13.76reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (2, 194) = 13.76,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(3, 340) = 19.86reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (3, 340) = 19.86,p < .001”

20 of 20

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Minority coefficient does not match its confidence interval

    Minor

    In Table 3, the reported 95% confidence interval for the Other conspiracy theories minority coefficient is centered at 0.065, not at the reported coefficient of −0.07. This discrepancy is too large to be rounding.

    Reported -0.07 · recomputed 0.065

  • Sample 2 ethnicity counts omit two participants

    Minor

    The listed Sample 2 ethnicity counts add to 128: 88 Caucasian Dutch, 36 ethnic minority participants, and four who preferred not to say. The reported Sample 2 size is 130, leaving two participants unaccounted for.

2 of 2

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Related

Authors
van Prooijen, J., Staman, J., & Krouwel, A. P. M.
Affiliations
  • Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology VU Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands
  • Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
ORCID
Venue
Applied Cognitive Psychology
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2018-07-23
Volume
32
Issue
5
Pages
661-667
ISSN
  • 0888-4080 (ISSN-L)
  • 1099-0720
DOI
10.1002/acp.3442
OpenAlex
W2884338451
Semantic Scholar
60f2a30c3d05ed1e4f90fc9e909c8c96fc4704d3
Cited by
76
References
30
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 1
FWCI
11.35
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations
  • Applied Cognitive Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • VU Research Portal (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence
Keywords
conspiracy beliefs, conspiracy theories, Muslim minorities, ethnic minorities, Muslim identity, marginalized communities

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