Open for innovation: the role of openness in explaining innovation performance among U.K. manufacturing firms

May combine two claims.

Patent data are a flawed measure of innovation and the search that produces it.

“These studies are largely based on analysis of patent citation data and patents have several serious shortcomings as indicators of innovation and innovative search.”

• cites Teece, 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Levin et al., 1987 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract (page unavailable) says industries differ substantially in patents generated per dollar of R&D and discusses the need to improve research that uses patent counts to measure innovative activity. This supports a limitation of patents as indicators of innovation, but our copy does not establish the claimed shortcomings of patent citation data as indicators of innovative search. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Alcacer and Gittelman, 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

While there are decreasing returns in innovation for increased openness in terms of breadth, no negative returns are detected.

“The results indicate that while there are decreasing returns in innovation for increased openness in terms of breadth, no negative returns are to be detected.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The residuals of the Tobit model follow a lognormal distribution.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The latent variable of innovative performance of a firm is a function of a number of explicative variables.

May combine two claims.

The dummies below the benchmark for BREADTH all have a negative sign, but only the dummy for the value of 0 is significant.

“The results show that the dummies below the benchmark all have a negative sign-as expected-but only the dummy for the value of 0 is significant.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The residuals of the Tobit model follow a lognormal distribution.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The latent variable of innovative performance of a firm is a function of a number of explicative variables.

May combine two claims.

The results indicate that while there are decreasing returns in innovation for increased openness in terms of external search depth, there are negative returns for 9-16 sources only.

“Accordingly, the results indicate that while there are decreasing returns in innovation for increased openness in terms of external search depth, there are negative returns for 9-16 sources only.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The residuals of the Tobit model follow a lognormal distribution.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The latent variable of innovative performance of a firm is a function of a number of explicative variables.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

On average, 4.94 percent of firms' turnover pertains to innovations new to the firm.

“while 4.94 percent of firms' turnover pertain to innovations new to the firm (INNFIRM)”

May combine two claims.

Both external search breadth and depth are highest in industries with high levels of R&D intensity and rates of innovation.

“Both the level of external search breadth and depth are highest in industries with high levels of R&D intensity and rates of innovation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

On average, firms use about seven sources of knowledge for innovative activities.

“Moreover, on average, firms use about seven sources of knowledge for their innovative activities”

May combine two claims.

The parameters for lead users are significant for radical and incremental innovation, but not for the intermediate category (INNFIRM).

“The parameters for lead users (USER) are significant for radical and well as for incremental innovation, but not for the intermediate category (INNFIRM).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The residuals of the Tobit model follow a lognormal distribution.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The latent variable of innovative performance of a firm is a function of a number of explicative variables.

May combine two claims.

The dummy above the benchmark for BREADTH is positive but insignificant.

“The dummy above the benchmark is positive but insignificant.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The residuals of the Tobit model follow a lognormal distribution.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The latent variable of innovative performance of a firm is a function of a number of explicative variables.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

On average, 2.81 percent of firms' turnover can be attributed to products new to the world.

“From the table it can be seen that on, average, 2.81 percent of firms' turnover can be attributed to products new to the world (INNWORLD)”

May combine two claims.

The interaction effects between R&D intensity and both BREADTH and DEPTH are significant at the 5 percent level but have negative signs.

“In fact, from Model VII in Table 5, it can be seen that the interaction effects between R&D intensity and both BREADTH and DEPTH are significant at the 5 percent level, but they have negative signs, indicating a substitution effect between internal R&D and openness.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The residuals of the Tobit model follow a lognormal distribution.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The latent variable of innovative performance of a firm is a function of a number of explicative variables.

May combine two claims.

The parameter for DEPTH is highest for INNWORLD, lower for INNFIRM, and smallest for INNIMP (insignificant).

“The parameter for DEPTH of openness is the highest in the case of INNWORLD, while INNFIRM is lower and the parameter for INNIMP is the smallest to the extent that it is insignificant.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The residuals of the Tobit model follow a lognormal distribution.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The latent variable of innovative performance of a firm is a function of a number of explicative variables.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Internal R&D spending no longer provides the same strategic benefits as before.

“This model suggests that the advantages that firms gain from internal R&D expenditure have declined.”

• cites Chesbrough, 2003aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The U.K. innovation survey received a response rate of 41.7 percent.

“It received a response rate of 41.7 percent (Stockdale, 2002).”

• cites Stockdale, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

R&D plays a dual role: it produces new knowledge and also builds the firm's capacity to absorb and use knowledge that already exists.

“In contrast, Cohen andLevinthal (1989, 1990) argue that R&D has two faces: not only does R&D generate genuinely new knowledge; it also enhances the firm's ability to assimilate and exploit existing knowledge from the”

• cites Cohen and Levinthal, 1989 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cohen and Levinthal, 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

No large-scale empirical test of Chesbrough's open innovation model exists, and earlier search research has not looked at external actors and sources.

“However, Chesbrough's work on the 'open innovation' model has not yet been empirically examined using a large-scale dataset and the previous literature on innovative search has not yet investigated the role of search among external actors and sources.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Many innovative firms have shifted to open search strategies involving a broad set of external actors and sources to support sustained innovation.

“New models of innovation have suggested that many innovative firms have changed the way they search for new ideas, adopting open search strategies that involve the use of a wide range of external actors and sources to help them achieve and sustain innovation.”

• Also stated in: § INTRODUCTION · hedged

  “Chesbrough (2003a) suggests that many innovative firms have shifted to an 'open innovation' model, using a wide range of external actors and sources to help them achieve and sustain innovation.”

• cites Chesbrough, 2003aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The sample was stratified by 12 Standard Industrial Classification classes and includes all main sectors of the U.K. economy, excluding public bodies, retail, and hotels and restaurants.

“The sample was stratified by 12 Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) classes and includes all main sectors of the U.K. economy, excluding public bodies, retail, and hotels and restaurants.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The U.K. innovation survey's interpretability, reliability, and validity were established through extensive piloting and pre-testing across European countries and industrial sectors.

“The interpretability, reliability, and validity of the survey were established by extensive piloting and pre-testing before implementation within different European countries and across firms from a variety of industrial sectors, including services, construction and manufacturing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The response rates for different sectors, regions, and size are largely consistent with the overall response pattern.

“The response rates for different sectors, regions, and size are largely consistent with the overall response pattern (Stockdale, 2002).”

• cites Stockdale, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The subsample includes 2707 manufacturing firms and draws from the entire U.K. manufacturing sector.

“Our subsample of the survey includes 2707 manufacturing firms and draw from the entire U.K. manufacturing sector.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

CIS data offer a direct measure of success in commercializing innovations for a broad range of industries that more traditional measures may not capture.

“CIS data offer 'a direct measure of success in commercializing innovations for a broad range of industries . . .that more traditional measures may not capture' (Leiponen and Helfat, 2003).”

• cites Leiponen and Helfat, 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study only distinguished between incremental and radical innovations.

“A further limitation of the present paper has to do with the fact that we have focused on the distinction between incremental and radical innovations only.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The list of sources on the questionnaire is extensive and the items are not mutually exclusive.

“Although the list of sources on the questionnaire is not fully comprehensive, it is extensive and the items are not mutually exclusive.”

May combine two claims.

The variables reflecting innovative performance are highly skewed and better represented by lognormal distributions.

“The variables reflecting the innovative performance of firms are highly skewed and, accordingly, the pattern observed in the empirical distribution is better represented by lognormal distributions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study did not examine how the type and nature of a firm's technological trajectory, and its approach to that trajectory, might affect innovative performance.

“While the present study examined different external search strategies for innovative ideas across different knowledge sources, it did not investigate the role of the type and nature of the technological trajectory that a firm may be exploring (as in the case of Katila and Ahuja) and how its approach to this trajectory may influence its innovative performance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The DEPTH COLLAB variable has a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.83.

“As in the case of BREADTH and DEPTH, the eight dummies are subsequently added up so that each firm gets a score of 0 when no partners are used, while the firm gets a value of 8 when the firm is collaborating with all potential collaboration partners (Cronbach's alpha coefficient = 0.83).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The lack of openness of firms to their external environment may reflect an organizational myopia.

“The lack of openness of firms to their external environment may reflect an organizational myopia, indicating that managers may overemphasize internal sources and under emphasize external sources.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The BREADTH variable has a high degree of internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0.93).

“Although our variable is a relatively simple construct, it has a high degree of internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha coefficient = 0.93).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The sources listed in the survey overlap with the resources and institutions considered part of the national innovation system.

“The sources listed in the survey overlap with the resources and institutions that are considered part of the national innovation system (Lundvall, 1992;Nelson, 1993;Spencer, 2001).”

• cites Lundvall, 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Nelson, 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Spencer, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Firms that are too internally focused may miss opportunities, as many knowledge sources necessary to achieve innovation can only be found outside the firm.

“As Chesbrough suggests, firms that are too internally focused may miss opportunities, as many knowledge sources necessary to achieve innovation can only be found outside the firm.”

• cites ChesbroughNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This finding is consistent with previous studies.

“This finding is consistent with the findings from previous studies (see Cohen, 1995;Laursen and Foss, 2003).”

• cites Cohen, 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Laursen and Foss, 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The DEPTH variable has a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.76.

“As in the case of BREADTH, the 16 sources are subsequently added up so that each firm gets a score of 0 when no knowledge sources are used to a high degree, while the firm gets the value of 16 when all knowledge sources are used to a high degree (Cronbach's alpha coefficient = 0.76).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Firms that produce simple or discrete technologies, or that depend on few knowledge bases, tend to search less broadly than firms developing complex technologies.

“Past research suggests that firms producing simple or discrete technologies that are artefactually simple, that is, they involve relatively few components and clear interfaces between modules, or that rely on a small number of knowledge bases, will tend to search more narrowly than firms involved in the design and development of complex technologies (Nelson and Winter, 1982).”

• cites Nelson and Winter, 1982Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Openness to external sources allows firms to draw in ideas from outsiders to deepen the pool of technological opportunities available to them.

“Openness to external sources allows firms to draw in ideas from outsiders to deepen the pool of technological opportunities available to them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A very similar variable to the search breadth measure was used by Laursen and Salter (2003) to predict firms' propensity to use university-developed knowledge.

“However, a very similar variable to that of the variable measuring search breadth has been used byLaursen and Salter (2003) as a predictor of the propensity of firms to use knowledge developed at universities.”

• cites Laursen and Salter (2003)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study examined innovative search and performance in a single period, which is a major limitation.

“Our approach focuses on innovative search and performance in one period and this remains a severe limitation of the study.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The substitution effect may also be the result of an additional attention allocation problem.

“Moreover, it may also be the result of an additional attention allocation problem, since ideas are produced both internally and externally.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Other studies have proposed a log-transformation of the Tobit model with a multiplicative exponential error term.

“Other studies, facing similar problems in terms of similar characteristics of skewness and departure from normality, have proposed a log-transformation of the Tobit model with a multiplicative exponential error term (Filippucci, Drudi, and Papalia, 1996;Papalia and Di Iorio, 2001).”

• cites Filippucci, Drudi, and Papalia, 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Papalia and Di Iorio, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One likely interpretation of the substitution effect is that it is the product of the NIH syndrome.

“One likely interpretation of this result is that it is the product of the NIH syndrome-that greater attention to openness for external sources confronts internal resistance from some of the company's technical staff.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Complex technologies like aeroengines typically require firms to master many different knowledge bases and to understand how various components interface and integrate.

“Complex technologies, such as aeroengines, often require firms to master a wide number of different knowledge bases and to understand the interfaces and integration of a range of different components (Brusoni, Prencipe, and Pavitt, 2001).”

• cites Brusoni, Prencipe, and Pavitt, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The framework used in this paper cannot analyze how breadth and depth of external search affect innovative performance within each separate knowledge channel.

“As pointed out earlier in this paper, a limitation of the framework proposed here is that it does not allow for the analysis of the importance of breadth and depth of external search to innovative performance within each individual knowledge channel.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The introduction of the two new variables to reflect openness of innovative search enables researchers to better explore the link between innovative search and innovative performance.

“Although the introduction of any variable into a well-established area of research is always contentious, the introduction of the two new variables to reflect the openness of innovative search does enable researchers to better explore the link between innovative search and innovative performance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Leiponen and Helfat (2003) also use a similar search breadth variable.

“AlsoLeiponen and Helfat (2003) use a similar search breadth variable.”

• cites Leiponen and Helfat (2003)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many studies of innovation have found that lead users are a key source for innovations.

“Given that many studies of innovation have found that a key source for innovations are lead users, we include a variable reflecting the use of lead users in innovation (Rothwell et al., 1974;Urban and von Hippel, 1988;von Hippel, 1988).”

• cites Rothwell et al., 1974 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Urban and von Hippel, 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites von Hippel, 1988Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.