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Cited by 91Hypothalamic control of reproductive hormonesNeuroendocrine regulation and behaviorNeurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms

Development of the human hypothalamus

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Swaab, D. F.·1995·Neurochemical Research
DOI 10.1007/bf01694533
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Abstract

The hypothalamus has been claimed to be involved in a great number of physiological functions in development, such as sexual differentiation (gender, sexual orientation) and birth, as well as in various developmental disorders including mental retardation, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), Kallman's syndrome and Prader-Willi syndrome. In this review a number of hypothalamic nuclei have therefore been discussed with respect to their development in health and disease. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is the clock of the brain and shows circadian and seasonal fluctuations in vasopressin-expressing cell numbers. The SCN also seems to be involved in reproduction, adding interest to the sex differences in shape of the vasopressin-containing SCN subnucleus and in its VIP cell number. In addition, differences in relation to sexual orientation can be seen in this perspective. The vasopressin and VIP neurons of the SCN develop mainly postnatally, but as premature children may have circadian temperature rhythms, a different SCN cell type is probably more mature at birth. The sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN, intermediate nucleus, INAH-1) is twice as large in young male adults as in young females. At the moment of birth only 20% of the SDN cell number is present. From birth until two to four years of age cell numbers increase equally rapidly in both sexes. After this age cell numbers start to decrease in girls, creating the sex difference. The size of the SDN does not show any relationship to sexual orientation in men. The large neurosecretory cells of the supraoptic (SON) and paraventricular nucleus (PVN) project to the neurohypophysis, where they release vasopressin and oxytocin into the blood circulation. In the fetus these hormones play an active role in the birth process. Fetal oxytocin may initiate or accelerate the course of labor. Fetal vasopressin plays a role in the adaptation to stress--caused by the birth process--by redistribution of the fetal blood flow. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurons of the PVN play a central role in stress response. Thus fetal CRH neurons may play a role in the timing of the moment of birth. Recently, alterations have been described in peptidergic, aminergic and cholinergic transmitters in the hypothalamus in SIDS. Future research will have to establish whether these changes are part of the course of SIDS. A large proportion of the SON and PVN neurons also produce tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). In neonates the majority of TH-immunoreactive neurons colocalizes vasopressin, while in the adult the majority of TH-positive neurons colocalizes oxytocin.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

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  • By mid-to-late gestation, rhythms of metabolic activity and gene expression are evident in the SCN of rodents and non-human primates.

    “By mid-to-late gestation, rhythms of metabolic activity and gene expression are evident in the SCN of rodents and NHPs23–25; however, the functional importance of early prenatal development of the SCN for fetal rhythms and physiology is less well understood.”

    From Rhythms of life: circadian disruption and brain disorders across the lifespan (2019) · cites this paper as [24]

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Authors
Swaab, D. F.
Corresponding author
Swaab, D. F.
ORCID
Swaab, D. F.
Venue
Neurochemical Research
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
1995-05
Volume
20
Issue
5
Pages
509-519
ISSN
  • 0364-3190 (ISSN-L)
  • 1573-6903
DOI
10.1007/bf01694533
OpenAlex
W2069134310
Cited by
91
References
107
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 2 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 6 · 2012: 1
FWCI
0.45
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Neurochemical Research (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • KNAW Research Portal (The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Hypothalamic control of reproductive hormones
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Neurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms
Keywords
suprachiasmatic nucleus, vasopressin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, sexually dimorphic nucleus, supraoptic nucleus, paraventricular nucleus, oxytocin, corticotropin-releasing factor, birth timing, sudden infant death syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, sex differences, sexual orientation, neurosecretory cells, fetal stress response, tyrosine hydroxylase, neonatal brain maturation
MeSH terms
Animals, Circadian Rhythm, Female, Embryonic and Fetal Development, Humans, Hypothalamus, Male, Paraventricular Hypothalamic Nucleus, Preoptic Area, Sex Characteristics, Suprachiasmatic Nucleus, Supraoptic Nucleus

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