Extending the technology acceptance model (TAM) to predict university students’ intentions to use metaverse-based learning platforms

“As demonstrated in Table 4, this condition is met, concluding that discriminant validity is present (Fornell & Larcker, 1981 ).”

“According to Ajzen (1991), SE designates the confidence that one possesses in one’s capability to engage in a specific behavior.”

“The finding showed that the loading of all measurement items in the dataset at once yielded a total variation of 44.678%, which is below the 50% threshold, indicating that CMB is absent (Podsakoff et al., 2003 ).”

“As instructed, we conducted the data analysis in two steps (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988 ).”

“Moreover, the result of the “Heterotrait–Mono - trait Ratio-HTMT” test indicates that all HTMT values < 0.85 (Henseler et al., 2015), endorsing the findings in terms of Fornell and Larcker’s criterion.”

“The outcomes showed that each construct in the research model acquired an accept - able Cronbech’s Alpha ( > 0.7) (Hair et al., 2019).”

“PU describes the extent to which individuals perceive that the usage of a specific technology enhances their performance (Davis et al., 1989).”

“Intrinsic motivation underpins the enjoyment concept (Abdullah & Ward, 2016), and is considered a hedonic motivation conceptualization (Venkatesh et al., 2012 ).”

“We followed the back-translating procedure to ensure that the meanings of the questionnaire items remained consistent after being translated from English to Arabic (Brislin, 1970).”

“Purposive sampling entails recruiting participants if they meet particu - lar screening conditions and based on their expertise or familiarity with the issue under investigation (Palinkas et al., 2015 ).”

“According to Bandura ( 1986), SE represents individuals’ judgments in terms of “their capabilities to organize and execute a course of action required to attain designated types of performances” (p. 391).”

“PE represents the degree to which an individual has fun and pleasure as a result of uti - lizing a particular technology (Shen et al., 2022; Venkatesh, 2000 , p.351) states that PE is the degree to which “the activity of using a specific system is perceived to be enjoyable in its own right, aside…”

“PE reflects the level of joy and fun that can be obtained as a result of using a specific system or technology (Davis et al., 1992).”

“Individuals with more confidence in their abilities to learn how to utilize information technology are inclined to view the technology as easy to use and beneficial, than those with less confidence (Venkatesh & Davis, 1996).”

“It is claimed that PE significantly influences users’ intentions to adopt hedonic systems or technologies such as metaverse, as being ones which give users joy or pleasure (Humida et al., 2022; Van der Heijden, 2004 ).”

“The link between technology and the level of innovation receptivity affects how ready an individual is to adopt a technology (Agarwal & Prasad, 1998 ).”

“Consequently, they are unable to replicate the experience of tradetional learning (Dwivedi et al., 2022).”

“In developing countries, there is a lack of widespread adoption of immersive technologies in organizations and among individuals due to a scarcity of adequate empirical studies on its use (Khan et al., 2019; Akçayır and Akçayır, 2017).”

“Such findings are similar to those of previous related studies in the area of educational technology (Wang et al., 2022a ; Cabero-Almenara et al., 2019 ; Huang, 2019 ; Punnoose, 2012 ).”

“Furthermore, a panel of experts consisting of five academics with a significant experience in educational technology and information systems was recruited to assess the content validity of the questionnaire (Artino et al., 2014).”

“This is a power analysis that takes into account the model structure, the expected effect sizes, and the anticipated level of significance (Memon et al., 2020).”

“According to Granić and Marangunić (2019 ), it has been widely established that TAM is among the most well-known models for predicting technology adoption and usage behavior.”

“Several studies have confirmed the significant effect of PIIT on PU, PEU, and BI (Fagan et al., 2012; Yi et al., 2006 ).”

“However, it has been claimed that it is critical to investigate the factors that lead to resistance behaviors among technology users (Kim & Kankanhalli, 2009 ).”

“In virtual worlds such as the metaverse, protecting user privacy and ensuring data security is an extremely important matter (Lee et al., 2021).”

“The importance of SE as a key determinant of PU and PEU in the educational field is well-established in the literature of technology adoption (Chahal & Rani, 2022; Abdullah et al., 2016 ).”

“…of PIIT on PEU (or effort expectancy as an equivalent construct to PEU) in many contexts, such as personal digital assistants (PAD) (Yi et al., 2006), mobile learning (Joo et al., 2014), virtual learning (Raaij & Schepers, 2008), and healthcare technologies (Fan et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2011).”

“Metaverse is widely seen that the Internet’s next generation, as it is expected to radically change how people interact and communicate with the world (Hwang and Chien, 2022).”

“Particularly, these technologies have contributed significantly in promoting metaverse in many educational applications (Tlili et al., 2022 ).”

“These technologies has changed how students learn and instructors teach, creat - ing new economic options for education providers and paving the way for AI-based adaptive learning systems (Kabudi et al., 2021).”

“The importance of SE as a key determinant of PU and PEU in the educational field is well-established in the literature of technology adoption (Chahal & Rani, 2022; Abdullah et al., 2016 ).”

“According to Zhang et al. (2022), Immersive technolo - gies like VR, AR, ER, and MR have increased interest in the metaverse, blurring the line between the virtual and physical worlds.”

“In particular, the TAM has witnessed an increased level of use by scholars for the purpose of predicting learners’ acceptance of learning technologies (Shen et al., 2022; Al-Adwan, 2020; Al-Emran et al., 2018).”

“Several previous researchers suggest that convenient and comfortable systems are more enjoyable (Wang et al., 2022a; Akdim et al., 2022; Tam et al., 2020).”

“In developing countries, there is a lack of widespread adoption of immersive technologies in organizations and among individuals due to a scarcity of adequate empirical studies on its use (Khan et al., 2019; Akçayır and Akçayır, 2017).”

“…many researchers have investi - gated self-efficacy in different contexts, domains, and perspectives, such as computer self-efficacy (Nardi & Ranieri, 2019), internet self-efficacy (Joo et al., 2000), tech - nology self-efficacy (Durak, 2018 ), and online learning self-efficacy (Hong et al., 2019).”

“Given that social engineering attacks currently make up the bulk of cyber-attacks experienced online (Salahdine & Kaabouch, 2019), it is anticipated that such attacks in the metaverse are expected to become considerably easier and more powerful, and hence more common (Di Pietro et al., 2021).”

“Previous related research has found that PIIT is a key determining factor with regard to BI, SE, PU and PEU (Akour et al., 2022; Chahal & Rani, 2022; Bubou & Job, 2022; Wang et al., 2021; Fatima et al., 2017).”

“, 2014), virtual learning (Raaij & Schepers, 2008), and healthcare technologies (Fan et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2011).”

“Previous studies on educational tech - nology adoption indicated that users’ PEU substantially impacted their perception of usefulness (Fussell and Trouong, 2002; Mailizar et al., 2021).”

“Moreover, most of the TAM-related studies have ignored users’ negative (inhibiting) perceptions in favor of focusing only on their positive (enabling) ones (Dou et al., 2017; Cenfetelli, 2004).”

“Several previous researchers suggest that convenient and comfortable systems are more enjoyable (Wang et al., 2022a; Akdim et al., 2022; Tam et al., 2020).”

“Constant security concerns in online learning settings make it vital to examine how students perceive online learning related risks (Jiang et al., 2022).”

“As a result, TAM allows researchers to integrate extra potential factors that may drive the adoption of a specific technology through the external variable construct (Lee et al., 2019a , b).”

“The perception of risk is often seen as the major barrier to user adoption of innovative technologies (Wang et al., 2018).”

“Research - ers might possibly foster effective technology adoption and facilitate the adoption of novel technological innovation by examining the factors driving resistance (Roy et al., 2018).”

“When it comes to user privacy in the metaverse, three major aspects stand out: personal information, behavior, and communications (Falchuk et al., 2018 ).”

“Personal innovativeness (PI) is the desire to try out new innovations (Fan et al., 2020).”

“Di Pietro et al. (2021) point out that the metaverse’s current data gathering methods and accompanying analyses are regarded as amateurish.”

“It is claimed that utilizing metaverse-based learning environments may facilitate learner-centered teaching by promoting both collaborative and independent learning (Suh & Ahn, 2022; Akour et al., 2022).”

“Thus, this study’s findings deliver useful insights that can be employed to support HEIs in Jordan in their efforts regarding a successful adoption of the metaverse.”

“…reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), extended reality (XR), and mixed reality (MR), do not, on their own, guarantee positive learning results (Marks & Thomas, 2022; Tegoan et al., 2021 ) due to issues related to the multisensory experiences of students in terms of teaching content quality…”

“PE represents the degree to which an individual has fun and pleasure as a result of uti - lizing a particular technology (Shen et al., 2022; Venkatesh, 2000 , p.351) states that PE is the degree to which “the activity of using a specific system is perceived to be enjoyable in its own right, aside…”

“Earlier research has revealed that PU positively affects educational technology adoption intentions (Al-Rahmi et al., 2022; Akour et al., 2022 ; Al-Adwan et al., 2018, 2021; Martinho et al., 2018).”

“Moreover, most of the TAM-related studies have ignored users’ negative (inhibiting) perceptions in favor of focusing only on their positive (enabling) ones (Dou et al., 2017; Cenfetelli, 2004).”

“It is believed that the existence of the metaverse might well serve as a new educational setting (Prieto et al., 2022 ; Suzuki et al., 2020).”

“Therefore, the utilization of metaverse technology in education has the ability to enhance the online learning experience and make it simpler for educational service providers to establish virtual classrooms that imitate traditional classrooms (Teng et al., 2022 ).”

“Previous empirical findings have indicated that users with a high level of self-efficacy have robust perceptions of PU and PEU (Chahal & Rani, 2022; Thongsri et al., 2020 ; Fatima et al., 2017; Ibrahim et al., 2017; Abdullah & Ward, 2016).”

“While these results support those of earlier studies on the adoption of technology in education Wang et al., 2022a; Zhou et al., 2022 ; Faqih et al., 2021 ; Cabero-Almenara et al., 2019 ), they are inconsistent with others (e.g., Yang et al., 2022 ).”

“Supporting this, PE is recognized as a crucial variable in determining the use intention with regard to innovative technologies such as VR technology (Lee et al., 2019a , b ) and AR technology (Cabero-Almenara et al., 2019 ).”

“Earlier research has revealed that PU positively affects educational technology adoption intentions (Al-Rahmi et al., 2022; Akour et al., 2022; Al-Adwan et al., 2018, 2021; Martinho et al., 2018).”

“While these results support those of earlier studies on the adoption of technology in education Wang et al., 2022a; Zhou et al., 2022 ; Faqih et al., 2021 ; Cabero-Almenara et al., 2019 ), they are inconsistent with others (e.g., Yang et al., 2022 ).”

“Several studies have confirmed the significant effect of PIIT on PU, PEU, and BI (Fagan et al., 2012; Yi et al., 2006 ).”

“In particular, the TAM has witnessed an increased level of use by scholars for the purpose of predicting learners’ acceptance of learning technologies (Shen et al., 2022; Al-Adwan, 2020; Al-Emran et al., 2018).”

“Furthermore, the imaginary hypothetical settings for new and unknown innovative tech - nologies such as metaverse technology, are notoriously hard to operate in (Schmitz et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2022).”

“…of PIIT on PEU (or effort expectancy as an equivalent construct to PEU) in many contexts, such as personal digital assistants (PAD) (Yi et al., 2006), mobile learning (Joo et al., 2014), virtual learning (Raaij & Schepers, 2008), and healthcare technologies (Fan et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2011).”

“This is probably because the respondants of this study are university students who belong to Generation Z (Z Gen) (born between 1995 and 2010 (Meet et al., 2022 )).”

“Such findings are similar to those of previous related studies in the area of educational technology (Wang et al., 2022a ; Cabero-Almenara et al., 2019 ; Huang, 2019 ; Punnoose, 2012 ).”

“Metaverse has higher creativity, greater levels of customization, and lesser risk to promote student interaction, boost engagement and motivation and expand traditional learning activities by offering opportunities for experiences that might not otherwise be possible (Estudante & Dietrich, 2020).”

“It is claimed that PE significantly influences users’ intentions to adopt hedonic systems or technologies such as metaverse, as being ones which give users joy or pleasure (Humida et al., 2022; Van der Heijden, 2004 ).”

“Students are more likely to have a favorable opinion of a learning system and to have an increased intention to use it if they enjoy using it (Zhou et al., 2022; Esteban-Millat et al., 2018).”

“…indicates that perceived risk negatively influences not just behavior intentions with regard to technology, but also perceived use - fulness, since it includes both negative consequences and uncertainty (Sarosa, 2022; Jiang et al., 2022; Trinh et al., 2020; Siyal et al., 2019 ; Wang et al., 2018).”

“Chandra and Leenders (2012 ) describe the virtual world as a digital multimedia 3D online environment that takes inspiration from reality and allows users to interact using avatars.”

“Previous empirical findings have indicated that users with a high level of self-efficacy have robust perceptions of PU and PEU (Chahal & Rani, 2022; Thongsri et al., 2020 ; Fatima et al., 2017; Ibrahim et al., 2017; Abdullah & Ward, 2016).”

“Previous related research has found that PIIT is a key determining factor with regard to BI, SE, PU and PEU (Akour et al., 2022; Chahal & Rani, 2022; Bubou & Job, 2022; Wang et al., 2021; Fatima et al., 2017).”

“It is believed that the existence of the metaverse might well serve as a new educational setting (Prieto et al., 2022 ; Suzuki et al., 2020).”

“According to Bubou and Job (2022), self-efficacy is intricately connected to self-esteem and self-worth, denoting a person’s level of confidence in a certain circumstance or event.”

“…indicates that perceived risk negatively influences not just behavior intentions with regard to technology, but also perceived use - fulness, since it includes both negative consequences and uncertainty (Sarosa, 2022; Jiang et al., 2022; Trinh et al., 2020; Siyal et al., 2019 ; Wang et al., 2018).”

“According to Quintana and Fernandez ( 2015), virtual worlds have distinct features, including a three-dimensional format (making a more immersive experience than is the case with static images), active users’ role through the use of avatars, and a collabora - tive engagement with other users who…”

“…allow them to engage readily with technological prod - ucts, which in turn boosts their favorable attitude towards products, causing them to focus their attention on the benefits of technological items and not be concerned about products performing as intended (Schweitzer & Van den Hende, 2016).”

“Furthermore, Salloum et al. ( 2021) suggest that human behavior in the metaverse settings should be described and investigated in an educational environ - ment in order to identify how it varies from behavior in the actual world.”

“In this way, the metaverse embraces actual learning environments (e.g., universities) by transforming them into a virtual environment in which instructors, students, and learning models may engage in collaborative and hybrid classrooms (Tarouco et al., 2013 ).”

“Individuals belonging to Gen Z are recognized as digital natives and as being tech-savvy, as they were born in the digital era and relied heavily on new technologies in their lives (Larionova et al., 2018).”

“With respect to the metaverse in education, computational problems are presented by the real-time collection and processing of interactive data between the virtual and physical worlds (Zhou, 2022 ).”

“Chen (2022) points out that individuals with high PIIT often seek out novel experiences based on cutting-edge IT products such as the meta-verse.”

“Accordingly, the original TAM constructs have been modified and extended by a large body of research by adding further variables, most of which may be divided into two main groups: (1) perceived variables, and (2) external variables (Al-Adwan & Berger, 2015).”

“COVID-19 disrupted education and high-lighted the importance of replicating in-person learning (Kim et al., 2022; Pappas & Giannakos, 2021 ).”

“Moreover, such studies have shown that PEU is a major antecedent of educational technology adoption intentions Saleh et al., 2022a, b ; Mensah et al., 2021).”

“Previous related research has found that PIIT is a key determining factor with regard to BI, SE, PU and PEU (Akour et al., 2022; Chahal & Rani, 2022; Bubou & Job, 2022; Wang et al., 2021; Fatima et al., 2017).”

“PEU4: “My interaction with metaverse educational platform is clear and understandable” Self-efficacy SE1: " I am confident that I can perform effectively on many different tasks” Luo & Du 2022 SE2: " When facing difficult tasks, I am certain that I will accomplish them.”

“The educational applications of virtual environments and related technologies have been the primary focus of previous research (Tang, 2021; Sebastien et al., 2018).”

“…1986 ), many researchers have investi - gated self-efficacy in different contexts, domains, and perspectives, such as computer self-efficacy (Nardi & Ranieri, 2019), internet self-efficacy (Joo et al., 2000), tech - nology self-efficacy (Durak, 2018 ), and online learning self-efficacy…”

“Such findings are similar to those of previous related studies in the area of educational technology (Wang et al., 2022a ; Cabero-Almenara et al., 2019 ; Huang, 2019 ; Punnoose, 2012 ).”

“While the effect of PCR on metaverse adoption intentions has not been investigated, it is expected that mitigating PCR would positively influence metaverse adoption intentions (Sebastian, 2022).”

“Constant security concerns in online learning settings make it vital to examine how students perceive online learning related risks (Jiang et al., 2022).”

“Such findings are similar to those of previous related studies in the area of educational technology (Wang et al., 2022a ; Cabero-Almenara et al., 2019 ; Huang, 2019 ; Punnoose, 2012 ).”

“…indicates that perceived risk negatively influences not just behavior intentions with regard to technology, but also perceived use - fulness, since it includes both negative consequences and uncertainty (Sarosa, 2022; Jiang et al., 2022; Trinh et al., 2020; Siyal et al., 2019 ; Wang et al., 2018).”

“Earlier research has revealed that PU positively affects educational technology adoption intentions (Al-Rahmi et al., 2022; Akour et al., 2022 ; Al-Adwan et al., 2018, 2021; Martinho et al., 2018).”

“…reality (AR), extended reality (XR), and mixed reality (MR), do not, on their own, guarantee positive learning results (Marks & Thomas, 2022; Tegoan et al., 2021 ) due to issues related to the multisensory experiences of students in terms of teaching content quality and the appropriateness…”

“…many researchers have investi - gated self-efficacy in different contexts, domains, and perspectives, such as computer self-efficacy (Nardi & Ranieri, 2019), internet self-efficacy (Joo et al., 2000), tech - nology self-efficacy (Durak, 2018 ), and online learning self-efficacy (Hong et al., 2019).”

“Learner-centered education and problem-based learning may both benefit from metaverse-based learning platforms (Han, 2020).”

“PIIT is also found as an vital enabler of the e-learning adoption intention (Chahal & Rani, 2022), and Chatbot adoption intentions (Trapero et al., 2020).”

“Moreover, PIIT is found to be a major enabler of PU (or performance expectancy as an equivalent construct to PU) in many contexts such as geotagging technology (Haque et al., 2020), online learning systems (Wang et al.”

“The educational applications of virtual environments and related technologies have been the primary focus of previous research (Tang, 2021; Sebastien et al., 2018).”

“While this study did not consider variables such as initial trust, perceived risk, and anthropomorphic traits within the TAM framework (Al-Adwan et al., 2023; Quan et al., 2023), it is critical to acknowledge the importance of these factors in prior research.”

“Venkatesh et al. and Davis conducted research that emphasizes the significance of intention as a predictor of technology adoption [91,96].”