The DOI matches its Crossref record; 91 of the 94 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 3 of the 24 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD
Open accessAbstract
Neurocognitive heterogeneity is increasingly recognized as a valid phenomenon in ADHD, with most estimates suggesting that executive dysfunction is present in only about 33%-50% of these children. However, recent critiques question the veracity of these estimates because our understanding of executive functioning in ADHD is based, in large part, on data from single tasks developed to detect gross neurological impairment rather than the specific executive processes hypothesized to underlie the ADHD phenotype. The current study is the first to comprehensively assess heterogeneity in all three primary executive functions in ADHD using a criterion battery that includes multiple tests per construct (working memory, inhibitory control, set shifting). Children ages 8-13 (M = 10.37, SD = 1.39) with and without ADHD (N = 136; 64 girls; 62% Caucasian/Non-Hispanic) completed a counterbalanced series of executive function tests. Accounting for task unreliability, results indicated significantly improved sensitivity and specificity relative to prior estimates, with 89% of children with ADHD demonstrating objectively-defined impairment on at least one executive function (62% impaired working memory, 27% impaired inhibitory control, 38% impaired set shifting; 54% impaired on one executive function, 35% impaired on two or all three executive functions). Children with working memory deficits showed higher parent- and teacher-reported ADHD inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms (BF 10 = 5.23 × 10 4), and were slightly younger (BF 10 = 11.35) than children without working memory deficits. Children with vs. without set shifting or inhibitory control deficits did not differ on ADHD symptoms, age, gender, IQ, SES, or medication status. Taken together, these findings confirm that ADHD is characterized by neurocognitive heterogeneity, while suggesting that contemporary, cognitively-informed criteria may provide improved precision for identifying a smaller number of neuropsychologically-impaired subtypes than previously described.
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Claims the paper makes
3 of 24 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory impairments are reported in 30% to 37% (Coghill et al., 2014; Fair et al., 2012), and inhibitory control deficits are detected in 21%–46% of pediatric ADHD cases (Coghill et al., 2014; Nigg et al., 2005; Solanto et al., 2001; Sonuga-Barke et al., 2010).”
§ Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD > Executive Functioning in ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Coghill et al., 2014 source
- Partly supportedcites Fair et al., 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In Results (page unavailable), Fair et al. identify two ADHD subgroups with reduced working memory, comprising 17% and 20% of their ADHD sample—37% combined. The paper does not report the 30% lower bound, so it supports only part of the cited range. Fair et al. are cited for the working-memory clause, not the separate inhibitory-control range. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Nigg et al., 2005 source
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“no study of ADHD-related heterogeneity has simultaneously measured and controlled for all three primary executive functions (Miyake et al., 2000), and conclusions may be limited by the use of single tasks to assess neurocognitive construct(s) (Conway et al., 2005).”
§ Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD > Construct Validity and Task Impurity
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Coghill et al. (2014) source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Miyake et al., 2000 source
- Supportedcites Conway et al., 2005 source
The citing sentence attributes the ADHD-heterogeneity statement to Miyake et al., not Conway et al. Conway et al.’s Latent Variable Analysis section supports the cited methodological caution: it says multiple tasks yield a purer measure of a construct by removing task-specific factors, whereas one task does not. (LLM, conf=0.92)
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“estimates for the proportion of pediatric ADHD cases who exhibit any form of executive dysfunction range from 21% to 60% across studies employing a wide range of tasks and impairment criteria (Biederman et al., 2004; Coghill et al., 2014; Fair, Bathula, Nikolas, & Nigg, 2012; Geurts, van der Oord, & Crone, 2006; Nigg et al., 2005; Solanto et al., 2001; Sonuga-Barke, Bitsalou, & Thompson, 2010).”
§ Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD > Executive Functioning in ADHD
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Biederman et al., 2004 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Coghill et al., 2014 source
- Partly supportedcites Fair, Bathula, Nikolas, & Nigg, 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The introduction says that only a subset of children with ADHD may be affected on any one neuropsychological measure, and the Results identify distinct ADHD subgroups. But the Results’ 21% refers to one subgroup with relatively high reaction-time variability; the paper does not report a 21%–60% range for any executive dysfunction across studies or impairment criteria. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Highly similar results were also obtained when allowing covariation among the three executive functioning estimates by specifying an oblique rather than orthogonal factor solution (84% of ADHD sample classified as impaired; sensitivity = 83.64% [71.20, 92.23], specificity = 81.48% [73.30, 89.25]).”
§ Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD > Results > Tier 3: Sensitivity Analyses
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Approximately half of the children with ADHD showed impairment on a single executive function (54%), and an additional third showed impairments on two (31%) or all three (4%) executive functions.”
§ Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD > Results > Tier 1: Executive Functioning Impairments in ADHD
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“89% of children with ADHD were classified as Impaired on at least one executive function component (n = 49 of 55).”
§ Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD > Results > Tier 1: Executive Functioning Impairments in ADHD
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Highly similar results were also obtained when controlling for age, gender, and SES by residualizing for these variables and then re-computing impairment estimates (82% of ADHD sample classified as impaired; sensitivity = 81.82% [69.10, 90.92], specificity = 80.25% [69.91, 88.27]).”
§ Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD > Results > Tier 3: Sensitivity Analyses
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Within specific executive function domains, 62% of children with ADHD were classified as Impaired in working memory (ORlog = 2.62), 27% Impaired in inhibitory control (ORlog = 1.49), and 38% Impaired in set shifting (ORlog = 2.36).”
§ Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD > Results > Tier 1: Executive Functioning Impairments in ADHD
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results indicated significantly higher ADHD symptoms for children with impaired working memory (n=37) relative to children with unimpaired working memory (n=59) (BF10 = 5.23 x 104, d=0.36).”
§ Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD > Results > Tier 2: Profiles of Impaired vs. Not Impaired Children
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results indicated significant evidence against ADHD symptom differences for children with impaired inhibitory control (n=19) relative to children with unimpaired inhibitory control (n=77) (BF01 = 5.80, d=0.04).”
§ Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD > Results > Tier 2: Profiles of Impaired vs. Not Impaired Children
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Results indicated that children with ADHD have large working memory deficits and medium-to-null inhibitory control and set shifting deficits relative to children without ADHD.51,53,56,58,75”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [51]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“a series of studies by some of the authors of the current Review included children with ADHD and ASD, controlled for ASD when evaluating executive functions in ADHD, and used a battery of construct-valid working memory tests.”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [51]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Similarly, Kofler et al. (9) reported that only 17% of children with ADHD have impairments in both inhibition and working memory (vs. 46% who have working memory but not inhibition deficits, and only 11% who have inhibition deficits but not working memory deficits).”
From Working memory and inhibitory control deficits in children with ADHD: an experimental evaluation of competing model predictions (2024) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Although these effect sizes are not directly comparable because they reflect performance changes vs. between group differences, this finding is consistent with evidence that only 5-11% of children with ADHD have inhibition deficits without co-occurring working memory deficits (9, 74) and calls into question the extent to which children with ADHD have deficits in inhibitory control versus perform”
From Working memory and inhibitory control deficits in children with ADHD: an experimental evaluation of competing model predictions (2024) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, highly similar results were reported in recent heterogeneity studies reporting that 62%−85% of children with ADHD were classified as impaired in working memory (Fosco et al., in press; Karalunas et al., 2017; Kofler, Irwin et al., 2019).”
From Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach (2020) · cites this paper as Kofler, Irwin et al., 2019
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Taken together, the results of the present study show that there is subtype-specific cognitive profile, measured by WISC-IV, in ADHD confirming a cognitive heterogeneity in ADHD in line with recent evidence [48].”
From ADHD subtype-specific cognitive correlates and association with self-esteem: a quantitative difference (2020) · cites this paper as [48]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“A recent study that comprehensively examined executive functioning heterogeneity in pediatric ADHD using neuropsychological battery also found a positive association between impaired working memory and exhibiting higher ADHD symptoms [48].”
From ADHD subtype-specific cognitive correlates and association with self-esteem: a quantitative difference (2020) · cites this paper as [48]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Together, these findings suggest that only a small minority of children with ADHD have impairments in both working memory and inhibitory control, and thus appear to support models conceptualizing them as relatively independent impairments in ADHD.”
From Working memory and inhibitory control deficits in children with ADHD: an experimental evaluation of competing model predictions (2024) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“and are consistently linked with daily life executive functioning deficits (Becker et al., 2011), neuropsychological indicators of executive functioning difficulties (Kofler et al., 2019), and academic impairment (Dvorsky & Langberg, 2019).”
From Disentangling the effects of attentional difficulties on fears of social evaluation and social anxiety symptoms: Unique interactions with sluggish cognitive tempo (2020) · cites this paper as Kofler et al., 2019
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Ethnicity counts omit five participants
MinorThe ethnicity categories total 131 children, but the stated sample contains 136. The text does not identify an ethnicity category or missing ethnicity data for the other five children.
Reported 136 · recomputed 131
“Sample ethnicity was mixed with 81 Caucasian Non-Hispanic (62%), 16 African American (12%), 14 Hispanic (11%), 13 multiracial children (10%), and 7 Asian (5%) children.”
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Self-citationSoreni, N., Crosbie, J., Ickowicz, A., & Schachar, R. (2009) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054708326110 · Cited by 121
Measuring executive function in early childhood: A case for formative measurement.
Willoughby, M. T., The Family Life Project Investigators, & Blair, C. B. (2016) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000152 · Cited by 120
Whither causal models in the neuroscience of ADHD?
Coghill, D., Nigg, J., Rothenberger, A., Sonuga‐Barke, E., & Tannock, R. (2005) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00397.x · Cited by 116
Hot and cool aspects of cognitive control in children with ADHD: Decision-making and inhibition
Geurts, H. M., van der Oord, S., & Crone, E. A. (2006) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9059-2 · Cited by 111
Wiberg, M., & Sundström, A. E. (2009) · Practical assessment, research & evaluation · Cited by 110
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DuPaul, G. J., Power, T. J., Anastopoulos, A. D., & Reid, R. R. (2016) · Cited by 98
Heterogeneity in ADHD: Neurocognitive predictors of peer, family, and academic functioning
Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., Spiegel, J. A., Day, T. N., Harmon, S. L., & Wells, E. L. (2017) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2016.1205010 · Cited by 94 · cited 11×
“…Snyder et al. 2015) question the veracity of these estimates, such that our understanding of executive functioning in ADHD is based, in large part, on data from single tasks that may suboptimally assess their intended construct (Kofler et al. 2016; Coghill et al. 2014; SonugaBarke et al. 2008).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationChacko, A., Kofler, M., & Jarrett, M. (2014) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-014-0171-5 · Cited by 93
Self-citationBipolar and ADHD comorbidity: Both artifact and outgrowth of shared mechanisms.
Youngstrom, E. A., Arnold, L. E., & Frazier, T. W. (2010) · Clinical Psychology Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2010.01226.x · Cited by 90
ADHD and Behavioral Inhibition: A Re-examination of the Stop-signal Task
Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D., Sarver, D. E., & Kofler, M. J. (2008) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9230-z · Cited by 87 · cited 1×
“Stop-signal Task and administration instructions were identical to Alderson et al. (2008).”
BackgroundSelf-citationWells, E. L., Kofler, M. J., Soto, E. F., Schaefer, H. S., & Sarver, D. E. (2018) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2017.10.024 · Cited by 84 · cited 3×
“…and validity evidence includes internal consistency (α = 0.82–0.97; Kofler et al. 2017), 1- to 3-week test-retest reliability (0.76–0.90; Sarver et al. 2015), and expected magnitude relations with criterion working memory complex span (r = 0.69) and updating tasks (r = 0.61) (Wells et al. 2018).”
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Friedman, L. M., Rapport, M. D., Raiker, J. S., Orban, S. A., & Eckrich, S. J. (2016) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-016-0171-7 · Cited by 68
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Self-citationKofler, M. J., Alderson, R. M., Raiker, J. S., Bolden, J., Sarver, D. E., & Rapport, M. D. (2014) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000050 · Cited by 67 · cited 2×
“Although process analysis suggests that poor performance on tests of delay aversion (Patros et al. 2015), response variability (Kofler et al. 2014), and emotion dysregulation (van Cauwenberge et al. 2015) by children with ADHD may be parsimoniously explained by associations with executive…”
BackgroundSelf-citationFollowing instructions from working memory: Why does action at encoding and recall help?
Graham, A. J., Gathercole, S. E., Allen, R. J., & Holmes, J. (2016) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-016-0636-5 · Cited by 62
Working memory capacity and intra-individual variability of proactive control
Wiemers, E. A., & Redick, T. S. (2018) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.11.002 · Cited by 56
Patros, C. H. G., Alderson, R. M., Lea, S. E., Tarle, S. J., Kasper, L. J., & Hudec, K. L. (2015) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.12.016 · Cited by 43
Gomez, R., & Sanson, A. V. (1994) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/bf02168935 · Cited by 43
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Tarle, S. J., Alderson, R. M., Patros, C. H. G., Lea, S. E., Hudec, K. L., & Arrington, E. F. (2017) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000364 · Cited by 29
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Flagged first, then by citations
3 of the 94 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., Harmon, S. L., Moltisanti, A., Aduen, P. A., Soto, E. F., & Ferretti, N. (2017). Working memory and organizational skills problems in ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry.
- Sattler, J., Dumont, R., & Coalson, D. (2016). Assessment of Children: WISC-V and WPPSI-IV. San Diego: Sattler Press.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Annual Research Review: The transdiagnostic revolution in neurodevelopmental disorders
Astle, D. E., Holmes, J., Kievit, R., & Gathercole, S. E. (2022) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13481 · Cited by 384
Kaiser, A., Aggensteiner, P.-M., Baumeister, S., Holz, N. E., Banaschewski, T., & Brandeis, D. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.01.019 · Cited by 171
Christiansen, L., Beck, M. M., Bilenberg, N., Wienecke, J., Astrup, A. V., & Lundbye‐Jensen, J. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm8060841 · Cited by 168
Executive functioning rating scales: Ecologically valid or construct invalid?
Soto, E. F., Kofler, M. J., Singh, L. J., Wells, E. L., Irwin, L. N., Groves, N. B., & Miller, C. E. (2020) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000681 · Cited by 115
“Reliability and validity evidence includes high internal consistency (α = .81–.97) and 1–3-week test-retest reliability (.76–.90; Kofler et al., 2019; Sarver et al., 2015), and expected relations with criterion working memory complex span (r = .69) and updating tasks (r = .61) (Wells et al., 2018).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationExecutive Functioning and Emotion Regulation in Children with and without ADHD
Groves, N. B., Wells, E. L., Soto, E. F., Marsh, C. L., Jaisle, E. M., Harvey, T. K., & Kofler, M. J. (2022) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-021-00883-0 · Cited by 110
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Kofler, M. J., Irwin, L. N., Soto, E. F., Groves, N. B., Harmon, S. L., & Sarver, D. E.
- Affiliations
- Florida State University (US)
- University of Mississippi Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kofler, Michael J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
- Published
- 2018-04-28
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 273-286
- ISSN
- 0091-0627 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-2835
- PMC
- PMC6204311
- OpenAlex
- W2799310259
- Cited by
- 288
- References
- 94
- Citations by year
- 2026: 48 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 45 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 3
- FWCI
- 14.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R34 MH102499)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, executive function, working memory, inhibitory control, set-shifting, executive dysfunction, diagnostic criteria, inattentive symptoms, hyperactive-impulsive symptoms, children
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Female, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Executive Function
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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