The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: Active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search from secondary memory.

Unsworth, Nash; Engle, Randall W.

doi:10.1037/0033-295x.114.1.104

Cited by 1,307Cognitive Abilities and TestingMemory Processes and InfluencesNeural and Behavioral Psychology Studies

The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: Active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search from secondary memory.

Unsworth, Nash, Engle, Randall W.·2007·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.114.1.104

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Studies examining individual differences in working memory capacity have suggested that individuals with low working memory capacities demonstrate impaired performance on a variety of attention and memory tasks compared with individuals with high working memory capacities. This working memory limitation can be conceived of as arising from 2 components: a dynamic attention component (primary memory) and a probabilistic cue-dependent search component (secondary memory). This framework is used to examine previous individual differences studies of working memory capacity, and new evidence is examined on the basis of predictions of the framework to performance on immediate free recall. It is suggested that individual differences in working memory capacity are partially due to the ability to maintain information accessible in primary memory and the ability to search for information from secondary memory.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0033-295x.114.1.104

Cites

192 of 192 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Both episodic-memory tasks and working memory training tasks require recall skills.
“In fact, both episodicmemory tasks and WM training tasks require recall skills (for a review, seeUnsworth & Engle, 2007).”
From Working memory training does not enhance older adults' cognitive skills: A comprehensive meta-analysis (2019) · cites this paper as Unsworth & Engle, 2007

Untitled work
(1998) · Cited by 36,049 · see citing works
An Integrative Theory of Prefrontal Cortex Function
Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167 · Cited by 12,803 · see citing works
The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?
Baddeley, A. (2000) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01538-2 · Cited by 7,359 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…conceptualization relies on older theoretical distinctions, the overall framework is based on new instantiations of some of these ideas, including Cowan's (1995) model of the focus of attention, the episodic buffer postulated by Baddeley (2000), as well as Oberauer's (2002) working memory model.”
Background
Conflict monitoring and cognitive control
Botvinick, M. M., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S., & Cohen, J. D. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.3.624 · Cited by 7,351 · see citing works
Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60422-3 · Cited by 7,216 · see citing works
The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
Cowan, N. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922 · Cited by 6,779 · see citing works
The Architecture of Cognition
Anderson, J. R. (2013) · doi:10.4324/9781315799438 · Cited by 6,761 · see citing works
Individual differences in working memory and reading
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(80)90312-6 · Cited by 6,336 · see citing works
Untitled work
(1983) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 6,051 · see citing works
Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention.
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.1.1 · Cited by 5,902 · see citing works
The Cognitive neurosciences
(2005) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.43-0626 · Cited by 4,726 · see citing works
Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory.
Tulving, E., & Thomson, D. M. (1973) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0020071 · Cited by 4,540 · see citing works
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory
Bourne, L. E. (1977) · Cited by 4,328 · see citing works
Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies
Carroll, J. B. (1993) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511571312 · Cited by 4,121 · see citing works
The Nature of Recollection and Familiarity: A Review of 30 Years of Research
Yonelinas, A. P. (2002) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.2002.2864 · Cited by 3,840 · see citing works
A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory
Jacoby, L. (1991) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/0749-596x(91)90025-f · Cited by 3,815 · see citing works
High-speed scanning in human memory
Sternberg, S. (1966) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.153.3736.652 · Cited by 3,576 · see citing works
Human cognitive abilities a survey of factor-analytic studies
Carroll, J. B. (2004) · Cited by 3,396 · see citing works
Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach.
Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., & Conway, A. R. A. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309 · Cited by 3,078 · see citing works
Self-citation
Short-term retention of individual verbal items.
Peterson, L., & Peterson, M. J. (1959) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0049234 · Cited by 2,939 · see citing works
Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology
Ebbinghaus, H. (2013) · Annals of Neurosciences · doi:10.5214/ans.0972.7531.200408 · Cited by 2,827 · see citing works
The two disciplines of scientific psychology.
Cronbach, L. J. (1957) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0043943 · Cited by 2,556 · see citing works
Models of Working Memory: Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control
Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (1999) · Cited by 2,404 · see citing works
The relations among inhibition and interference control functions: A latent-variable analysis.
Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.101 · Cited by 2,309 · see citing works
Is working memory capacity task dependent?
Turner, M. L., & Engle, R. W. (1989) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/0749-596x(89)90040-5 · Cited by 2,299 · see citing works
Self-citation
Attention And Cognitive Control 1
Posner, M. I., & Snyder, C. R. R. (2024) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781032722450-4 · Cited by 2,264 · see citing works
The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: An individual-differences perspective
Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2002) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196323 · Cited by 2,229 · see citing works
Self-citation
Handbook of mathematical psychology: I.
Luce, R. D., Bush, R. R., & Galanter, E. (1963) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,996 · see citing works
An automated version of the operation span task
Unsworth, N., Heitz, R. P., Schrock, J. C., & Engle, R. W. (2005) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/bf03192720 · Cited by 1,861 · see citing works
Self-citation
Reasoning ability is (little more than) working-memory capacity?!
Kyllonen, P. C., & Christal, R. E. (1990) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(05)80012-1 · Cited by 1,810 · see citing works
Evolving conceptions of memory storage, selective attention, and their mutual constraints within the human information-processing system.
Cowan, N. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.104.2.163 · Cited by 1,787 · see citing works
Working-memory capacity and the control of attention: The contributions of goal neglect, response competition, and task set to Stroop interference.
Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.132.1.47 · Cited by 1,725 · cited 4× · see citing works
“Specifically, the current framework suggests that individual differences in WMC are related to individual differences in performance in basic attention tasks like antisaccade and Stroop because low WMC individuals are poorer at actively maintaining task goals in the face of internal and external distraction (Engle & K…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citation
The serial position effect of free recall.
Murdock, B. B. (1962) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0045106 · Cited by 1,717 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Davelaar et al. cited results from Murdock (1962) as evidence for such an output process.”
Background
Search of associative memory
Raaijmakers, J. G., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1981) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.88.2.93 · Cited by 1,696 · see citing works
The Generality of Working Memory Capacity: A Latent-Variable Approach to Verbal and Visuospatial Memory Span and Reasoning.
Kane, M. J., Hambrick, D. Z., Tuholski, S. W., Wilhelm, O., Payne, T. W., & Engle, R. W. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.133.2.189 · Cited by 1,679 · see citing works
Self-citation
Varieties of Memory and Consciousness: Essays in Honour of Endel Tulving
Roediger, H. L., III, & Craik, F. I. M. (2014) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,654 · see citing works
Attention and memory: an integrated framework
(1995) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.33-2415 · Cited by 1,652 · see citing works
Some Tests of the Decay Theory of Immediate Memory
Brown, J. L. (1958) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470215808416249 · Cited by 1,442 · see citing works
A controlled-attention view of working-memory capacity.
Kane, M. J., Bleckley, M. K., Conway, A. R. A., & Engle, R. W. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.130.2.169 · Cited by 1,414 · see citing works
Self-citation
Primary and secondary saccades to goals defined by instructions
Hallett, P. E. (1978) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/0042-6989(78)90218-3 · Cited by 1,262 · see citing works
The Control of Short-Term Memory
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1971) · Scientific American · doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0871-82 · Cited by 1,261 · see citing works
Access to information in working memory: Exploring the focus of attention.
Oberauer, K. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.28.3.411 · Cited by 1,167 · see citing works
Two storage mechanisms in free recall
Glanzer, M., & Cunitz, A. R. (1966) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(66)80044-0 · Cited by 1,149 · see citing works
Primary memory.
Waugh, N. C., & Norman, D. A. (1965) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0021797 · Cited by 1,120 · see citing works
A latent variable analysis of working memory capacity, short-term memory capacity, processing speed, and general fluid intelligence
Conway, A. R. A., Cowan, N., Bunting, M. F., Therriault, D. J., & Minkoff, S. R. B. (2002) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(01)00096-4 · Cited by 1,108 · see citing works
Executive Attention, Working Memory Capacity, and a Two-Factor Theory of Cognitive Control
Engle, R. W., & Kane, M. J. (2003) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(03)44005-x · Cited by 1,104 · see citing works
Self-citation
Neural mechanisms of general fluid intelligence
Gray, J. R., Chabris, C. F., & Braver, T. S. (2003) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1014 · Cited by 1,080 · see citing works
Time constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans
Barrouillet, P., Bernardin, S., & Camos, V. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83 · Cited by 994 · see citing works
Working Memory and Intelligence: The Same or Different Constructs?
Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., & Boyle, M. O. (2005) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.30 · Cited by 969 · see citing works
Prefrontal and medial temporal lobe interactions in long-term memory
Simons, J. S., & Spiers, H. J. (2003) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1178 · Cited by 961 · see citing works
The separability of working memory resources for spatial thinking and language processing: An individual differences approach.
Shah, P., & Miyake, A. (1996) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.125.1.4 · Cited by 913 · see citing works
Models of Working Memory
(1999) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139174909 · Cited by 912 · see citing works
The cocktail party phenomenon revisited: The importance of working memory capacity
Conway, A. R. A., Cowan, N., & Bunting, M. F. (2001) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196169 · Cited by 875 · see citing works
Memory and Working-with-Memory: A Component Process Model Based on Modules and Central Systems
Moscovitch, M. (1992) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.1992.4.3.257 · Cited by 822 · see citing works
Toward a theory of memory and attention.
Norman, D. A. (1968) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0026699 · Cited by 755 · see citing works
Memory for familiar and unfamiliar words: Evidence for a long-term memory contribution to short-term memory span
Hulme, C., Maughan, S., & Brown, G. D. A. (1991) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/0749-596x(91)90032-f · Cited by 742 · see citing works
Oscillator-based memory for serial order.
Brown, G. D. A., Preece, T., & Hulme, C. (2000) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.107.1.127 · Cited by 709 · see citing works
Working-memory capacity, proactive interference, and divided attention: Limits on long-term memory retrieval.
Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.26.2.336 · Cited by 683 · see citing works
Self-citation
Retrieval of propositional information from long-term memory
Anderson, J. R. (1974) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(74)90021-8 · Cited by 674 · see citing works
Models of human memory
Norman, D. A., & Bernbach, H. A. (1970) · Cited by 604 · see citing works
The role of working memory capacity in retrieval.
Rosen, V. M., & Engle, R. W. (1997) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.126.3.211 · Cited by 604 · see citing works
Self-citation
Memory Organization and Structure
Nyberg, S. E., & Puff, C. R. (1981) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422353 · Cited by 602 · see citing works
Recency-sensitive retrieval processes in long-term free recall
Bjork, R. A., & Whitten, W. B. (1974) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(74)90009-7 · Cited by 574 · see citing works
The measurement of differential deficit
Chapman, L. J., & Chapman, J. P. (1978) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/0022-3956(78)90034-1 · Cited by 539 · see citing works
Inhibition in verbal working memory revealed by brain activation
Jonides, J., Smith, E. E., Marshuetz, C., Koeppe, R. A., & Reuter‐Lorenz, P. A. (1998) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.95.14.8410 · Cited by 539 · see citing works
The Comparison of Regression Variables
Williams, E. J. (1959) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B (Statistical Methodology) · doi:10.1111/j.2517-6161.1959.tb00346.x · Cited by 539 · see citing works
Working memory and retrieval: A resource-dependent inhibition model.
Conway, A. R. A., & Engle, R. W. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.123.4.354 · Cited by 538 · see citing works
Self-citation
Attention and Performance XIV: Synergies in Experimental Psychology, Artificial Intelligence, and Cognitive Neuroscience
Meyer, D. E., & Kornblum, S. (1993) · Cited by 523 · see citing works
Statistical theory of spontaneous recovery and regression
Estes, W. K. (1955) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0048509 · Cited by 511 · see citing works
Individual differences in comprehending and producing words in context
Daneman, M., & Green, I. (1986) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/0749-596x(86)90018-5 · Cited by 498 · see citing works
Working memory capacity — facets of a cognitive ability construct
Oberauer, K., Süß, H., Schulze, R., Wilhelm, O., & Wittmann, W. W. (2000) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00251-2 · Cited by 496 · see citing works
Prefrontal cognitive processes: Working memory and inhibition in the antisaccade task.
Roberts, R. J., Hager, L. D., & Heron, C. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.123.4.374 · Cited by 493 · see citing works
Buildup of proactive inhibition as a cue-overload effect.
Watkins, O. C., & Watkins, M. J. (1975) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.1.4.442 · Cited by 486 · see citing works
Working memory span and the role of proactive interference.
Lustig, C., May, C. P., & Hasher, L. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.130.2.199 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
A model for interference and forgetting.
Mensink, G.-J., & Raaijmakers, J. G. W. (1988) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.95.4.434 · Cited by 461 · see citing works
Remembering Over the Short-Term: The Case Against the Standard Model
Nairne, J. S. (2002) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135131 · Cited by 460 · see citing works
The role of working memory capacity in retrieval.
Rosen, V. M., & Engle, R. W. (1997) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.126.3.211 · Cited by 441 · see citing works
Self-citation
SAM: A Theory of Probabilistic Search of Associative Memory
Raaijmakers, J. G. W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1980) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60162-0 · Cited by 437 · see citing works
Short-term Temporal Changes in Free Recall
Postman, L. J., & Phillips, L. W. (1965) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470216508416422 · Cited by 429 · see citing works
Components of fluent reading
Baddeley, A., Logie, R. H., Nimmo‐Smith, I., & Brereton, N. (1985) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/0749-596x(85)90019-1 · Cited by 428 · see citing works
Proactive inhibition and item similarity in short-term memory
Wickens, D. D., Born, D. G., & Allen, C. K. (1963) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(63)80045-6 · Cited by 424 · see citing works
The Demise of Short-Term Memory Revisited: Empirical and Computational Investigations of Recency Effects.
Davelaar, E. J., Goshen‐Gottstein, Y., Ashkenazi, A., Haarmann, H. J., & Usher, M. (2005) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.112.1.3 · Cited by 418 · see citing works
Working Memory Capacity and the Antisaccade Task: Individual Differences in Voluntary Saccade Control.
Nash Unsworth, A., Schrock, J. C., & Engle, R. W. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.30.6.1302 · Cited by 404 · see citing works
Self-citation
Storage and retrieval processes in long-term memory
Shiffrin, R. M., & Atkinson, R. C. (1969) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0027277 · Cited by 398 · see citing works
Working memory and retrieval: A resource-dependent inhibition model.
Conway, A. R. A., & Engle, R. W. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.123.4.354 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
Self-citation
Contextual variability and serial position effects in free recall.
Howard, M. W., & Kahana, M. J. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.25.4.923 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Problems in the measurement of cognitive deficits.
Chapman, L. J., & Chapman, J. P. (1973) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0034541 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Memory and frontal lobe function.
Shimamura, A. P. (1995) · Cited by 392 · see citing works
An interactive framework for examining prefrontal cognitive processes
Roberts, R. J., & Pennington, B. F. (1996) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565649609540642 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
Binding and Inhibition in Working Memory: Individual and Age Differences in Short-Term Recognition.
Oberauer, K. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.134.3.368 · Cited by 391 · see citing works
Individual differences as a crucible in theory construction.
Underwood, B. J. (1975) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0076759 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
A contextual change account of the directed forgetting effect
Sahakyan, L., & Kelley, C. M. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.28.6.1064 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
The role of interference in memory span
May, C. P., Hasher, L., & Kane, M. J. (1999) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03198529 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Working-memory capacity as long-term memory activation: An individual-differences approach.
Cantor, J., & Engle, R. W. (1993) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.19.5.1101 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
Self-citation
Storage Mechanisms in Recall
Glanzer, M. (1972) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60441-7 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Working memory span and the role of proactive interference.
Lustig, C., May, C. P., & Hasher, L. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.130.2.199 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Individual differences in working memory within a nomological network of cognitive and perceptual speed abilities.
Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., & Boyle, M. D. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.131.4.567 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
A temporal distinctiveness theory of recency and modality effects.
Glenberg, A. M., & Swanson, N. G. (1986) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.12.1.3 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
Working Memory Capacity and Suppression
Rosen, V. M., & Engle, R. W. (1998) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.1998.2590 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
Self-citation
A multinomial processing tree model for degradation and redintegration in immediate recall
Schweickert, R. (1993) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03202729 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Free recall of trilingual lists
Tulving, E., & Colotla, V. A. (1970) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(70)90006-x · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Effects of frontal lobe damage on interference effects in working memory
Thompson‐Schill, S. L., Jonides, J. J., Marshuetz, C. S., SMITH, E. E., D’Esposito, M., Kan, I. P., Knight, R. T., & Diane Swick, A. (2002) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.2.2.109 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Search and retrieval processes in long-term memory
Shiffrin, R. M., & Atkinson, R. C. (1968) · NASA Technical Reports Server (NASA) · Cited by 289 · see citing works
A temporal distinctiveness theory of recency and modality effects.
Glenberg, A. M., & Swanson, N. G. (1986) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.12.1.3 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Age Differences in Behavior and PET Activation Reveal Differences in Interference Resolution in Verbal Working Memory
Jonides, J., Marshuetz, C. S., Smith, E. E., Reuter‐Lorenz, P. A., Koeppe, R. A., & Hartley, A. A. (2000) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892900561823 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Working memory capacity and fluid abilities: Examining the correlation between Operation Span and Raven
Nash Unsworth, A., & Engle, R. W. (2004) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2004.08.003 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Self-citation
Individual Differences
Caprara, G. V., & Cervone, D. (2000) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511812767.006 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Memory and learning : the Ebbinghaus Centennial Conference
Gorfein, D. S., & Hoffman, R. P. (1987) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 243 · see citing works
A resource model of the neural basis of executive working memory
Bunge, S. A., Klingberg, T., Jacobsen, R. B., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2000) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.97.7.3573 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences
Osaka, N., Osaka, M., Kondo, H. M., Morishita, M., Fukuyama, H., & Shibasaki, H. (2003) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Focusing the spotlight: Individual differences in visual attention control.
Heitz, R. P., & Engle, R. W. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.136.2.217 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Self-citation
The demise of short-term memory
Crowder, R. G. (1982) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/0001-6918(82)90044-0 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Frontal Lobe Mechanisms that Resolve Proactive Interference
Badre, D., & Wagner, A. D. (2005) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhi075 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Simple and complex memory spans and their relation to fluid abilities: Evidence from list-length effects
Nash Unsworth, A., & Engle, R. W. (2005) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2005.06.003 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Self-citation
Human Memory: An Introduction to Research, Data, and Theory
Neath, I. (1997) · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting
Kondo, H., Osaka, N., & Osaka, M. (2004) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Analyzing the dynamics of free recall: An integrative review of the empirical literature
Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (1994) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03200763 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
The neural basis of individual differences in working memory capacity: an fMRI study
Osaka, M., Osaka, N., Kondo, H. M., Morishita, M., Fukuyama, H., Aso, T., & Shibasaki, H. (2003) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(02)00032-0 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Two separate verbal processing rates contributing to short-term memory span.
Cowan, N., Wood, N. L., Wood, P. K., Keller, T. A., Nugent, L. D., & Keller, C. V. (1998) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.127.2.141 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Verbal memory span and the timing of spoken recall
Cowan, N. (1992) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/0749-596x(92)90034-u · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Item and order information in short-term memory: Evidence for multilevel perturbation processes.
Lee, C. L., & Estes, W. K. (1981) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.7.3.149 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
The magic number seven after fifteen years
Broadbent, D. E. (1975) · Cited by 203 · see citing works
The neural basis of task-switching in working memory: effects of performance and aging.
Smith, E. E., Geva, A., Jonides, J., Miller, A., Reuter-Lorenz, P., & Koeppe, R. A. (2001) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.98.4.2095 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Studies in Long Term Memory
Brown, A. S., Kennedy, A. L., & Wilkes, A. (1976) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421764 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
EXPERIMENTS ON “PREHENSION”
Jacobs, J. E. (1887) · Mind · doi:10.1093/mind/os-12.45.75 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Functional roles of the cingulo-frontal network in performance on working memory
Kondo, H. M., Morishita, M., Osaka, N., Osaka, M., Fukuyama, H., & Shibasaki, H. (2003) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.046 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Retrieval cues and release from proactive inhibition
Gardiner, J. M., Craik, F. I. M., & Birtwistle, J. (1972) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(72)80012-4 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
A two-process account of long-term serial position effects.
Glenberg, A. M., Bradley, M. M., Stevenson, J. A., Kraus, T. A., Tkachuk, M. J., Gretz, A. L., Fish, J. H., & Turpin, B. A. M. (1980) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.6.4.355 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Proactive interference and item similarity in working memory.
Bunting, M. F. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.32.2.183 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Short-term memory: Where do we stand?
Crowder, R. G. (1993) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03202725 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Working memory capacity and the top-down control of visual search: Exploring the boundaries of "executive attention".
Kane, M. J., Poole, B. J., Tuholski, S. W., & Engle, R. W. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.32.4.749 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Self-citation
Effects of incentive on working memory capacity: Behavioral and pupillometric data
Heitz, R. P., Schrock, J. C., Payne, T. W., & Engle, R. W. (2007) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00605.x · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Self-citation
Prefrontal and hippocampal contributions to visual associative recognition: Interactions between cognitive control and episodic retrieval
Bunge, S. A., Burrows, B. E., & Wagner, A. D. (2004) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2003.08.001 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
An analysis of latency and interresponse time in free recall
Rohrer, D., & Wixted, J. T. (1994) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03198390 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Who is Likely to Acquire Programming Skills?
Shute, V. J. (1991) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/vqjd-t1yd-5wvb-rypj · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Working memory and Stroop interference: An individual differences investigation
Long, D. L., & Prat, C. S. (2002) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03195290 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Two separate verbal processing rates contributing to short-term memory span.
Cowan, N., Wood, N. L., Wood, P. K., et al. (1998) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.127.2.141 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Children's working-memory processes: A response-timing analysis.
Cowan, N., Towse, J. N., Hamilton, Z., Saults, J. S., Elliott, E. M., Lacey, J. F., Moreno, M. V., & Hitch, G. J. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.132.1.113 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Studies of the long-term recency effect: Support for a contextually guided retrieval hypothesis.
Glenberg, A. M., Bradley, M. M., Kraus, T. A., & Renzaglia, G. J. (1983) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.9.2.231 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Proactive interference and the dynamics of free recall.
Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (1993) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.19.5.1024 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Interresponse times in single-trial free recall.
Murdock, B. B., & Okada, R. (1970) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0029993 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Memory span: a review of the literature.
Blankenship, A. B. (1938) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0061086 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Cognitive abilities as determinants of success in acquiring logic skill
Kyllonen, P. C., & Stephens, D. L. (1990) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/1041-6080(90)90020-h · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Inhibition from part-list cues and rate of recall.
Roediger, H. L., III, Stellon, C. C., & Tulving, E. (1977) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.3.2.174 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Proactive interference, accessibility bias, and process dissociations: Valid subject reports of memory.
Jacoby, L. L., Debner, J. A., & Hay, J. F. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.27.3.686 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Proactive inhibition in free recall.
Craik, F. I. M., & Birtwistle, J. (1971) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0031835 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Maintenance of semantic information in capacity-limited item short-term memory
Haarmann, H. J., & Usher, M. (2001) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196193 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Concept and measurement of primary memory.
Watkins, M. J. (1974) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0036952 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Dissociable brain mechanisms for inhibitory control: effects of interference content and working memory capacity
Mecklinger, A., Weber, K., Gunter, T. C., & Engle, R. W. (2003) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2003.08.008 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Self-citation
Assessing the age-related effects of proactive interference on working memory tasks using the Rasch model.
Bowles, R. P., & Salthouse, T. A. (2003) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.18.3.608 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Some problems in the study of differences in cognitive processes
Baron, J., & Rebecca Treiman, A. (1980) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03198270 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
The nature and timing of the retrieval process and of interference effects.
Wickens, D. D., Moody, M. J., & Dow, R. (1981) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.110.1.1 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
An encoding and retrieval model of single-trial free recall
Metcalfe, J., & Murdock, B. B. (1981) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(81)90365-0 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Certain Temporal Characteristics of the Recall of Verbal Associates
Bousfield, W. A., Sedgewick, C. H. W., & Cohen, B. H. (1954) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1418075 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
A Computational Model of Prefrontal Control in Free Recall: Strategic Memory Use in the California Verbal Learning Task
Becker, S., & Lim, J. C. (2003) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892903322370744 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
PRIMARY MEMORY
Craik, F. I. M. (1971) · British Medical Bulletin · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a070859 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Strategy-dependent changes in memory: Effects on behavior and brain activity
Speer, N. K., Jacoby, L. L., & Braver, T. S. (2003) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.3.3.155 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Unexpected Costs of High Working Memory Capacity Following Directed Forgetting and Contextual Change Manipulations
Delaney, P. F., & Sahakyan, L. (2007) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03193479 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
A temporal–contextual retrieval account of complex span: An analysis of errors☆
Nash Unsworth, A., & Engle, R. W. (2006) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2005.11.004 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Self-citation
VERBAL LEARNING AND MEMORY: Does the Modal Model Still Work?
Healy, A. F., & McNamara, D. S. (1996) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.143 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Individual differences in the fan effect and working memory capacity
Bunting, M. F., Conway, A. R. A., & Heitz, R. P. (2004) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2004.07.007 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Immediate serial recall of words and nonwords: Tests of the retrieval-based hypothesis
Saint‐Aubin, J., & Poirier, M. (2000) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03212990 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Capacity limits in list item recognition: Evidence from proactive interference
Cowan, N., Johnson, T. D., & Saults, J. S. (2004) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210344000206 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
On the relative and absolute strength of a memory trace
Rohrer, D. (1996) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03200880 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
On retrieving sequence from long-term memory.
Indow, T., & Togano, K. (1970) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0029395 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Set-size effects in primary memory: An age-related capacity limitation?
Halford, G. S., Maybery, M. T., & Bain, J. (1988) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03214229 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Remembering and forgetting as context discrimination.Preprint
Capaldi, E. J., & Neath, I. (1995) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.2.3-4.107 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Random search with unequal search rates: Serial and parallel generalizations of McGill's model
Vorberg, D., & Ulrich, R. (1987) · Journal of Mathematical Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-2496(87)90033-2 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Capacity Limitations in Information Processing, Attention, and Memory
Limitations, I. C. (1982) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315802855-9 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Proactive interference in short-term memory: Fundamental forgetting processes
Bennett, R. W. (1975) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(75)80060-0 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Individual differences in digit span, susceptibility to proactive interference, and aptitude/achievement test scores
Dempster, F. N., & Cooney, J. B. (1982) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(82)90026-5 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Short Term Memory and Selection Processes in a Frontal-Lobe Model
Usher, M., & Cohen, J. D. (1999) · Perspectives in neural computing · doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-0813-9_7 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
The Foundations of Remembering
(2011) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203837672 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Investigation of functional working memory in the reading span test.
Tirre, W. C., & Peña, C. M. (1992) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.462 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Connectionist Models in Cognitive Neuroscience
Heinke, D., Humphreys, G. W., & Olson, A. (1999) · Perspectives in neural computing · doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-0813-9 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Short-term memory: A brief commentary
Shiffrin, R. M. (1993) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03202732 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The neural bases of the effects of item-nonspecific proactive interference in working memory
Postle, B. R., & Brush, L. N. (2004) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.4.3.379 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Modularity and Dissociations in Memory Systems
Crowdert, R. G. (1989) · Cited by 42 · see citing works
The Story of the Two-Store Model of Memory: Past Criticisms, Current Status, and Future Directions
Raaijmakers, J. G. W. (1993) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/1477.003.0030 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Proactive interference in sentence recall: Topic-similarity effects and individual differences
Dempster, F. N. (1985) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03198447 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
The effects of visual presentation method on single-trial free recall
Nilsson, L., Wright, E., & Murdock, B. B. (1975) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03212937 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Neural mechanism for the magical number 4: Competitive interactions and nonlinear oscillation
Usher, M., Cohen, J. D., Haarmann, H. J., & Horn, D. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01583922 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Individual Differences in Working Memory Capacity and Retrieval: A Cue-Dependent Search Approach.
Nash Unsworth, A., & Engle, R. W. (2007) · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citation
Mnemic Inhibition as a Factor in the Limitation of the Memory Span
Young, C. W., & Supa, M. (1941) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1417204 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Understanding Intelligence: A Summary and an Adjustable-Attention Hypothesis
Cowan, N. (2005) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452233529.n25 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Some thoughts on individual differences and theory construction
Cohen, R. L. (1994) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(94)90018-3 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Searching for words in letter sets of varying size.
Kaplan, I. T., Carvellas, T., & Metlay, W. (1969) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0028140 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
The breadth of memory search
Rohrer, D. (2002) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210143000407 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Delayed release from proactive interference with meaningful material: How much do we remember after reading brief prose passages?
Blumenthal, G. B., & Robbins, D. (1977) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.3.6.754 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
AN ACTIVATION-BASED THEORY OF IMMEDIATE ITEM MEMORY
Davelaar, E. J., & Usher, M. (2002) · doi:10.1142/9789812777256_0010 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Control, automaticity, and working memory :a dual-process analysis
Daniels, K. A. (2002) · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Central executive processing: mother, daughter, or sister of suppression? : a study of reading comprehension ability
Honig, R. M. (2004) · Texas ScholarWorks (Texas Digital Library) · Cited by 2 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Working Memory: Theories, Models, and Controversies
Baddeley, A. (2012) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422 · Cited by 4,271 · see citing works
Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review
Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2013) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028228 · Cited by 1,782 · see citing works
The Mind and Brain of Short-Term Memory
Jonides, J., Lewis, R. L., Nee, D. E., Lustig, C. A., Berman, M. G., & Moore, K. S. (2008) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093615 · Cited by 957 · see citing works
Anxiety and working memory capacity: A meta-analysis and narrative review.
Moran, T. P. (2016) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000051 · Cited by 776 · see citing works
Intelligence, creativity, and cognitive control: the common and differential involvement of executive functions in intelligence and creativity
Benedek, M., Jauk, E., Sommer, M., Arendasy, M., & Neubauer, A. C. (2014) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.05.007 · Cited by 743 · see citing works
Does working memory training work? The promise and challenges of enhancing cognition by training working memory
Morrison, A. B., & Chein, J. M. (2011) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-010-0034-0 · Cited by 723 · see citing works
Chapter 2 Design for a Working Memory
Oberauer, K. (2009) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(09)51002-x · Cited by 636 · see citing works
Working memory and fluid intelligence: Capacity, attention control, and secondary memory retrieval
Unsworth, N., Fukuda, K., Awh, E., & Vogel, E. K. (2014) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2014.01.003 · Cited by 528 · see citing works
Self-citation
Working memory capacity and self-regulatory behavior: toward an individual differences perspective on behavior determination by automatic versus controlled processes
Hofmann, W., Gschwendner, T., Friese, M., Wiers, R. W., & Schmitt, M. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012705 · Cited by 524 · see citing works
Do programs designed to train working memory, other executive functions, and attention benefit children with ADHD? A meta-analytic review of cognitive, academic, and behavioral outcomes
Rapport, M. D., Orban, S. A., Kofler, M. J., & Friedman, L. M. (2013) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.08.005 · Cited by 517 · see citing works
Complex working memory span tasks and higher-order cognition: a latent-variable analysis of the relationship between processing and storage.
Unsworth, N., Redick, T. S., Heitz, R. P., Broadway, J. M., & Engle, R. W. (2009) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210902998047 · Cited by 479 · see citing works
Self-citation
What is working memory capacity, and how can we measure it?
Wilhelm, O., Hildebrandt, A., & Oberauer, K. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00433 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
The roles of associative and executive processes in creative cognition
Beaty, R. E., Silvia, P. J., Nusbaum, E. C., Jauk, E., & Benedek, M. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0428-8 · Cited by 448 · see citing works
Heuristics and biases as measures of critical thinking: Associations with cognitive ability and thinking dispositions.
West, R. F., Toplak, M. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (2008) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012842 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
Working Memory Benefits Creative Insight, Musical Improvisation, and Original Ideation Through Maintained Task-Focused Attention
De Dreu, C. K. W., Nijstad, B. A., Baas, M., Wolsink, I., & Roskes, M. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211435795 · Cited by 368 · see citing works
Does Working Memory Training Transfer? A Meta-Analysis Including Training Conditions as Moderators
Schwaighofer, M., Fischer, F., & Bühner, M. (2015) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2015.1036274 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
The mechanisms of working memory capacity: Primary memory, secondary memory, and attention control
Shipstead, Z., Lindsey, D. R. B., Marshall, R. L., & Engle, R. W. (2014) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2014.01.004 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Self-citation
Decision-making and cognitive abilities: A review of associations between Iowa Gambling Task performance, executive functions, and intelligence
Toplak, M. E., Sorge, G. B., Benoit, A., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2010) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.002 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD
Kofler, M. J., Irwin, L. N., Soto, E. F., Groves, N. B., Harmon, S. L., & Sarver, D. E. (2019) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0438-2 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Complex span versus updating tasks of working memory: The gap is not that deep.
Schmiedek, F., Hildebrandt, A., Lövdén, M., Wilhelm, O., & Lindenberger, U. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0015730 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
About the Distinction between Working Memory and Short-Term Memory
Aben, B., Stapert, S., & Blokland, A. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00301 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
The neuroscience of musical improvisation
Beaty, R. E. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.01.004 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Cogmed working memory training: Does the evidence support the claims?
Shipstead, Z., Hicks, K. L., & Engle, R. W. (2012) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.003 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Self-citation
Does working memory training generalize?
Shipstead, Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2010) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb-50-3-4-245 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Self-citation
Working memory training involves learning new skills
Gathercole, S. E., Dunning, D. L., Holmes, J., & Norris, D. (2019) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2018.10.003 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Memory search and the neural representation of context
Polyn, S. M., & Kahana, M. J. (2008) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.10.010 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Rational thinking and cognitive sophistication: Development, cognitive abilities, and thinking dispositions.
Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034910 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Everyday attention failures: An individual differences investigation.
Unsworth, N., McMillan, B. D., Brewer, G. A., & Spillers, G. J. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0028075 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Overlapping and Distinct Cognitive Impairments in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity and Autism Spectrum Disorder without Intellectual Disability
Karalunas, S. L., Hawkey, E., Gustafsson, H., Miller, M., Langhorst, M., Cordova, M., Fair, D., & Nigg, J. T. (2018) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0394-2 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
“…inhibition (Logan 1994; Nigg 2000); 2) interference control; 3) working memory (Baddeley 1996; De Luca et al. 2003; Engle 2002; Kane et al. 2007; Unsworth and Engle 2007), 4) set-shifting and 5) reward valuation, particularly delayed reward discounting (Demurie et al. 2012; Hulst et al. 2017;…”
Central and peripheral components of working memory storage
Cowan, N., Saults, J. S., & Blume, C. L. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0036814 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Transcranial direct current stimulation enhances verbal working memory training performance over time and near transfer outcomes.
Richmond, L. L., Wolk, D., Chein, J., & Olson, I. R. (2014) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00657 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Multimedia learning and individual differences: Mediating the effects of working memory capacity with segmentation
Lusk, D. L., Evans, A. D., Jeffrey, T. R., Palmer, K. R., Wikstrom, C. S., & Doolittle, P. E. (2009) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00848.x · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Working memory and organizational skills problems in <scp>ADHD</scp>
Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., Harmon, S. L., Moltisanti, A., Aduen, P. A., Soto, E. F., & Ferretti, N. (2018) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12773 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Pupil size tracks attentional performance in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity disorder
Wainstein, G., Rojas-Líbano, D., Crossley, N. A., Carrasco, X., Aboitiz, F., & Ossandón, T. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-08246-w · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Executive functioning rating scales: Ecologically valid or construct invalid?
Soto, E. F., Kofler, M. J., Singh, L. J., Wells, E. L., Irwin, L. N., Groves, N. B., & Miller, C. E. (2020) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000681 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“A ratio of 80:20 go:no-go stimuli was selected to maximize prepotency (Kane & Engle 2003; Unsworth & Engle 2007).”
Background
A comprehensive investigation of memory impairment in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder
Rhodes, S. M., Park, J., Seth, S., & Coghill, D. R. (2012) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02436.x · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Individual differences in the effects of retrieval from long-term memory
Brewer, G. A., & Unsworth, N. (2012) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2011.12.009 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Dual n-back training increases the capacity of the focus of attention
Lilienthal, L., Tamez, E., Shelton, J. T., Myerson, J., & Hale, S. (2013) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-012-0335-6 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Executive Functioning and Emotion Regulation in Children with and without ADHD
Groves, N. B., Wells, E. L., Soto, E. F., Marsh, C. L., Jaisle, E. M., Harvey, T. K., & Kofler, M. J. (2022) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-021-00883-0 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Evolution of working memory
Carruthers, P. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1301195110 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Heterogeneity in development of aspects of working memory predicts longitudinal attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptom change.
Karalunas, S. L., Gustafsson, H. C., Dieckmann, N. F., Tipsord, J., Mitchell, S. H., & Nigg, J. T. (2017) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000292 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
The case against specialized visual-spatial short-term memory
Morey, C. C. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000155 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Individual differences in long-term memory.
Unsworth, N. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000176 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Interference control, working memory capacity, and cognitive abilities: a latent variable analysis.
Unsworth, N. (2010) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.12.003 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only
Minear, M., Brasher, F., Guerrero, C. B., Brasher, M., Moore, A., & Sukeena, J. (2016) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-016-0616-9 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Selective Association Between Tetris Game Play and Visuospatial Working Memory: A Preliminary Investigation
Lau‐Zhu, A., Holmes, E. A., Butterfield, S., & Holmes, J. (2017) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3339 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Why is working memory capacity related to matrix reasoning tasks?
Harrison, T. L., Shipstead, Z., & Engle, R. W. (2015) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0473-3 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Self-citation
A Randomized Control Trial of Working Memory Training With and Without Strategy Instruction: Effects on Young Children’s Working Memory and Comprehension
Peng, P., & Fuchs, D. (2017) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219415594609 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Component analysis of verbal versus spatial working memory training in adolescents with ADHD: A randomized, controlled trial
Gibson, B. S., Gondoli, D. M., Johnson, A. C., Steeger, C. M., Dobrzenski, B. A., & Morrissey, R. A. (2011) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2010.551186 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Understanding the cognitive processes involved in writing to learn
Arnold, K. M., Umanath, S., Thio, K., Reilly, W. B., McDaniel, M. A., & Marsh, E. J. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000119 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Working memory training does not enhance older adults' cognitive skills: A comprehensive meta-analysis
Sala, G., Aksayli, N. D., Tatlidil, K. S., Gondo, Y., & Gobet, F. (2019) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2019.101386 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Subjective cognitive complaints and the role of executive cognitive functioning in the working population: a case-control study
Stenfors, C. U. D., Marklund, P., Magnusson Hanson, L. L., Theorell, T., & Nilsson, L.-G. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083351 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The contribution of working memory to fluid reasoning: Capacity, control, or both?
Chuderski, A., & Necka, E. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0028465 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Measuring Working Memory Is All Fun and Games: A Four-Dimensional Spatial Game Predicts Cognitive Task Performance
Atkins, S. M., Sprenger, A. M., Colflesh, G. J. H., Briner, T. L., Buchanan, J. B., Chavis, S. E., Chen, S.-Y., Iannuzzi, G. L., Kashtelyan, V., Dowling, E., et al. (2014) · Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000262 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
The differential role of verbal and spatial working memory in the neural basis of arithmetic
Demir, Ö. E., Prado, J., & Booth, J. R. (2014) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2014.939182 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Pre-Stressor Interference Control and Intrusive Memories
Verwoerd, J., Wessel, I., de Jong, P. J., Nieuwenhuis, M. M. W., & Huntjens, R. J. C. (2011) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-010-9335-x · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Understanding Phonological Memory Deficits in Boys with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Dissociation of Short-term Storage and Articulatory Rehearsal Processes
Bolden, J., Rapport, M. D., Raiker, J. S., Sarver, D. E., & Kofler, M. J. (2012) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9619-6 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Pointing and tracing enhance computer-based learning
Ginns, P., & King, V. (2021) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-021-09997-0 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and phonological working memory: Methodological variability affects clinical and experimental performance metrics.
Tarle, S. J., Alderson, R. M., Patros, C. H. G., Lea, S. E., Hudec, K. L., & Arrington, E. F. (2017) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000364 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Does working memory capacity moderate the interleaving benefit?
Sana, F., Yan, V. X., Kim, J. A., Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2018) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2018.05.005 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
The future promise of Cogmed working memory training.
Gibson, B. S., Gondoli, D. M., Johnson, A. C., Steeger, C. M., & Morrissey, R. A. (2012) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.07.003 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Are Episodic Buffer Processes Intact in ADHD? Experimental Evidence and Linkage with Hyperactive Behavior
Kofler, M. J., Spiegel, J. A., Austin, K. E., Irwin, L. N., Soto, E. F., & Sarver, D. E. (2018) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0346-x · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Working Memory and Increased Activity Level (Hyperactivity) in ADHD: Experimental Evidence for a Functional Relation
Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., & Wells, E. L. (2020) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054715608439 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Experimental Evaluation of Near‐ and Far‐Transfer Effects of an Adaptive Multicomponent Working Memory Training
Lange, S., & Süß, H. (2015) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3126 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Dispositional Mindfulness May Have Protected Athletes from Psychological Distress During COVID-19 in Australia
O’Connor, E. J., Crozier, A. J., Murphy, A., & Immink, M. A. (2022) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.1177/00315125221087523 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Application of the dual-component model of working memory to ADHD:Greater secondary memory deficit despite confounded cognitive differences
Gibson, B. S., Gondoli, D. M., Ralph, K. J., & Sztybel, P. (2018) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2016.1225706 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Evaluating the effects of brief mindfulness practice on attentional control and episodic memory
Namias, J. M., & Huff, M. J. (2024) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2024.2381872 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The relation between executive functions, error-related brain activity, and ADHD symptoms in clinically evaluated school-aged children
Marsh, C. L., Groves, N. B., Mehra, L. M., Black, K. E., Irwin Harper, L. N., Meyer, A., & Kofler, M. J. (2023) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2023.2166029 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Testing the testing effect with advanced materials while accounting for individual differences
Redifer, J. L., Myers, S. J., Bae, C. L., Naas, A., & Scott, A. (2026) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-025-09758-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works

Do working memory and susceptibility to interference predict individual differences in fluid intelligence?
Borella, E., Carretti, B., & Mammarella, I. C. (2006) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440500215962 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Working memory and access to numerical information in children with disability in mathematics
Passolunghi, M. C., & Siegel, L. S. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2004.04.002 · Cited by 389 · see citing works
Short-Term Memory, Working Memory, and Inhibitory Control in Children with Difficulties in Arithmetic Problem Solving
Passolunghi, M. C., & Siegel, L. S. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.2000.2626 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
What makes working memory work? A multifaceted account of the predictive power of working memory capacityPreprint
Robison, M. K., Miller, A. L., Wiemers, E. A., et al. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/7jc4n · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Is Rehearsal an Effective Maintenance Strategy for Working Memory?
Oberauer, K. (2019) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2019.06.002 · Cited by 74 · see citing works

Authors: Unsworth, N., & Engle, R. W.
Affiliations: Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
ORCID: Engle, Randall W.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2007
Volume: 114
Issue: 1
Pages: 104-132
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.114.1.104
OpenAlex: W2146406172
Cited by: 1,307
References: 192
Citations by year: 2026: 42 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 67 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 52 · 2021: 86 · 2020: 52 · 2019: 68 · 2018: 94 · 2017: 85 · 2016: 96 · 2015: 85 · 2014: 96 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 83
FWCI: 63.97
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Keywords: individual differences, working memory capacity, primary memory, secondary memory, active maintenance, attention, memory search
MeSH terms: Attention, Cognition, Cues, Exploratory Behavior, Humans, Memory, Models, Psychological, Psychology

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: Active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search from secondary memory.

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks