Complex span and n-back measures of working memory: A meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Working memory is a construct of primary relevance to many areas of psychology. Two types of tasks have been used to measure working memory, primarily in different research areas: Complex span tasks are commonly used in behavioral studies in the cognitive and individual-differences literature, whereas n-back tasks have been used more frequently in cognitive neuroscience studies investigating the neural underpinnings of working memory. Despite both categories of tasks being labeled as "working memory" measures, previous empirical studies have provided mixed evidence regarding the shared amount of overlapping processes between complex span and n-back tasks. The present meta-analysis showed that the complex span and n-back tasks are weakly correlated, although significant heterogeneity across studies was observed. A follow-up analysis of unpublished data indicated that the sample composition affects the relationship between the complex span and n-back tasks, following the law of diminishing returns. Finally, a separate meta-analysis indicated that the simple span and n-back tasks are correlated to the same extent as are the complex span and n-back tasks. The present findings indicate that the complex span and n-back tasks cannot be used interchangeably as working memory measures in research applications.
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Across ADHD meta-analyses, estimates of working memory, inhibitory control, and set shifting deficits rely largely on tasks criticized for suboptimal construct validity and structural organization relative to contemporary cognitive psychology.
“Across ADHD meta-analyses, estimates of deficits in working memory, inhibitory control, and set shifting are based in large part, and in some cases entirely, on data from tasks that have been criticized for suboptimal construct validity (Redick & Lindsey, 2013) and structural organization (Friedman & Miyake, 2017) relative to contemporary advancements in cognitive psychology (Snyder et al., 2015).”
From Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD (2019) · cites this paper as Redick & Lindsey, 2013
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredBackward and complex span tasks load on a common span construct.
“prior latent-variable evidence indicates that they load on a common span construct (Engle et al., 1999; Redick & Lindsey, 2013)”
From The asymmetry of working memory training transfer: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2026) · cites this paper as Redick & Lindsey, 2013
The Present research section says simple and complex span tasks tend to correlate strongly and measure many similar processes. But the paper does not report latent-variable evidence that backward span and complex span load on a common factor; its latent-variable discussion concerns complex span and n-back tasks. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe concurrent validity of the n-back task has been questioned because previous studies reported low correlations between n-back and other WM tasks, especially complex span tasks.
“The concurrent validity of the n-back task, however, has been questioned as previous studies have reported low correlations between the n-back task and other WM tasks, especially complex span tasks”
From Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies (2017) · cites this paper as Redick & Lindsey, 2013
Evidence on whether complex span and n-back tasks converge on the same ability is mixed.
“Nevertheless, evidence for their convergent validity is mixed.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Redick and Lindsey, 2013
Because reading span uses verbal memory items, its weak associations with n-back align with Redick and Lindsey's meta-analytic finding of weak n-back-complex span relations for verbal memoranda.
“Reading span uses verbal memory items; as such, these results align with Redick and Lindsey's (2013) meta-analytic finding of relatively weak associations between n-back tasks and complex span that used verbal memoranda.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Redick and Lindsey, 2013
Redick and Lindsey's (2013) meta-analysis of 20 studies (N = 2,178) found that the complex span-n-back correlation was stronger for visuospatial than verbal items, with an overall weak meta-analytic correlation of .20.
“Across 20 studies (total N = 2,178), they found that the strength of the correlation between complex span and n-back performance was stronger for visuospatial memory items than for verbal memory items.Overall, however, they observed only a relatively weak meta-analytic correlation, r̄ = .20.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Redick and Lindsey, 2013
Redick and Lindsey (2013) concluded that complex span and n-back tasks should not be used interchangeably.
“They concluded that complex span and n-back tasks should not be used interchangeably.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Redick and Lindsey, 2013
n-back tasks have been criticized as measures of working memory because they correlate poorly with complex span tests of working memory (meta-analytic r=.20).
“At the same time, n-back tasks have been criticized as measures of working memory because they correlate poorly with complex span tests of working memory (meta-analytic r=.20; 110), likely because n-back tasks require only passive recognition.”
From Working memory and inhibitory control deficits in children with ADHD: an experimental evaluation of competing model predictions (2024) · cites this paper as [110]
The combination of informant-rated executive function scales and performance-based tests has often been considered the gold standard for clinical and neuropsychological assessment of executive function in children and adolescents.
“The combination of informant-rated executive function scales and performance-based tests has often been considered the gold standard for clinical and neuropsychological assessment of executive function in children and adolescents.134,135”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [134]
The Design and analyses and Results and discussion passages (pages not provided) concern performance-based working-memory tasks, chiefly complex span and n-back. Searches for informant ratings and a clinical assessment ‘gold standard’ found no passage addressing their combined use to assess executive function in children or adolescents. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredA meta-analysis found only a weak relationship between n-back and complex span tasks and concluded that they tap different components of working memory.
“However, a recent meta-analysis of studies measuring the relationship between the n-back and complex span found only a weak relationship between the two tasks and concluded they tap different components of working memory (Redick & Lindsey, 2013).”
From A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only (2016) · cites this paper as Redick & Lindsey, 2013
Other researchers have also been unable to demonstrate transfer to reasoning and fluid ability tasks from working-memory training.
“In this our results mirror those of other researchers who have also been unable to demonstrate transfer to reasoning and fluid ability tasks from working-memory training (Chooi & Thompson, 2012;Colom et al., 2013;Harrison et al., 2013;Heinzel, et al., 2014;Redick et al., 2013;Schwarb, Nail, & Schumacher, 2015;Sprenger, et al., 2013;Thompson, et al., 2013;von Bastian & Eschen, 2015).”
From A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only (2016) · cites this paper as Redick et al., 2013
Performance on N-back tasks correlates only weakly with performance on complex span tasks, so updating and span tasks should be considered separately.
“Performance on N-back tasks only correlates weakly with performance on complex span tasks (Redick and Lindsey 2013) therefore it makes sense to consider updating and span tasks separately.”
From Divergent Research Methods Limit Understanding of Working Memory Training (2020) · cites this paper as Redick and Lindsey 2013
Lures increase WM load and the requirements of cognitive control.
“We included lures because it has been previously shown that lures increase WM load and the requirements of cognitive control (e.g., Redick & Lindsey, 2013; Szmalec, Verbruggen, & Kemps, 2011).”
From Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies (2021) · cites this paper as Redick & Lindsey, 2013
Redick and Lindsey suggested that improving the processes involved in n-back task performance via repeated practice does not result in changes to the processes involved in complex span performance.
“More recently, Redick and Lindsey [56] suggested that “improving the processes involved in n-back task performance via repeated practice does not result in changes to the processes involved in complex span performance.””
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [56]
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Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2020) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-019-01681-y · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Individual differences and long-term consequences of tdcs-augmented cognitive training
Katz, B., Au, J., Buschkuehl, M., Abagis, T., Zabel, C., Jaeggi, S. M., & Jonides, J. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01115 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only
Minear, M., Brasher, F., Guerrero, C. B., Brasher, M., Moore, A., & Sukeena, J. (2016) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-016-0616-9 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Wells, E. L., Kofler, M. J., Soto, E. F., Schaefer, H. S., & Sarver, D. E. (2018) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2017.10.024 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“In particular, converging evidence questions the construct validity (Redick & Lindsey, 2013) and structural organization (Friedman & Miyake, 2016) of common neuropsychological tests used to assess working memory.”
N-back Versus Complex Span Working Memory Training
Blacker, K. J., Negoita, S., Ewen, J. B., & Courtney, S. M. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-017-0044-1 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Lawlor-Savage, L., & Goghari, V. M. (2016) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0151817 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“More recently, Redick and Lindsey [56] suggested that “improving the processes involved in nback task performance via repeated practice does not result in changes to the processes involved in complex span performance.”
BackgroundA framework for executive function in the late elementary years.
Cirino, P. T., Ahmed, Y., Miciak, J., Taylor, W. P., Gerst, E. H., & Barnes, M. A. (2018) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000427 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Why is working memory performance unstable? A review of 21 factors
Blasiman, R. N., & Was, C. A. (2018) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v14i1.1472 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Divergent Research Methods Limit Understanding of Working Memory Training
Pergher, V., Shalchy, M. A., Pahor, A., Van Hulle, M. M., Jaeggi, S. M., & Seitz, A. R. (2020) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-019-00134-7 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Performance on Nback tasks only correlates weakly with performance on complex span tasks (Redick and Lindsey 2013) therefore it makes sense to consider updating and span tasks separately.”
BackgroundCury, M. E. G., Berberian, A., Scarpato, B. S., Kerr-Gaffney, J., Santos, F. H., & Claudino, A. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00288 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The Influence of Individual Differences in Cognitive Ability on Working Memory Training Gains
Wiemers, E. A., Redick, T. S., & Morrison, A. B. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-018-0111-2 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationTransfer after working memory updating training
Waris, O., Soveri, A., & Laine, M. (2015) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0138734 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder
Kofler, M. J., Soto, E. F., Singh, L. J., Harmon, S. L., Jaisle, E. M., Smith, J. N., Feeney, K. E., & Musser, E. D. (2024) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-024-00350-9 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“We and others have also argued that the working memory tests usually used in clinical practice place relatively minimal demands on the executive components of working memory and therefore might be better conceptualized as measures of short-term memory 51,103,131,133,134 .”
van Ewijk, H., Weeda, W. D., Heslenfeld, D. J., Luman, M., Hartman, C. A., Hoekstra, P. J., Faraone, S. V., Franke, B., Buitelaar, J. K., & Oosterlaan, J. (2015) · Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2015.07.003 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
On the relation of working memory and multitasking: Memory span and synthetic work performance.
Redick, T. S. (2016) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.05.003 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationAlderson, R. M., Patros, C. H. G., Tarle, S. J., Hudec, K. L., Kasper, L. J., & Lea, S. E. (2017) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1105207 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Kofler, M. J., Groves, N. B., Chan, E. S. M., Marsh, C. L., Cole, A. M., Gaye, F., Cibrian, E., Tatsuki, M. O., & Singh, L. J. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1277583 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies
Malinovitch, T., Jakoby, H., & Ahissar, M. (2021) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-020-01824-6 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Lebedev, A. V., Nilsson, J., & Lövdén, M. (2018) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01260 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Beginning of the Pandemic: COVID-19-Elicited Anxiety as a Predictor of Working Memory Performance
Fellman, D., Ritakallio, L., Waris, O., Jylkkä, J., & Laine, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.576466 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., & Wells, E. L. (2020) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054715608439 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back
Burgoyne, A. P., Frank, D. J., & Macnamara, B. N. (2025) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-024-02622-0 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Singh, L. J., Floyd, R. G., Reynolds, M. R., Pike, N. M., & Huenergarde, M. C. (2025) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2024.2357376 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The asymmetry of working memory training transfer: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Fu, J., Zhou, Y., Yuan, M., & Cai, Y. (2026) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-026-02994-5
“…executive components beyond simple storage, prior latent-variable evidence indicates that they load on a common span construct (Engle et al., 1999; Redick & Lindsey, 2013), and meta-analytic conventions have consistently classified them within the span domain rather than with updating paradigms…”
Broad and sustained transfer effects of executive n-back working memory training
Cao, D.-Y., Zhang, T.-N., Zhang, Y., Zhang, E., & Zhang, G.-L. (2026) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-025-02773-8
- Authors
- Redick, T. S., & Lindsey, D. R. B.
- Affiliations
- Purdue University West Lafayette (US)
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Redick, Thomas S.
- Venue
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
- Published
- 2013-06-04
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1102-1113
- ISSN
- 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-5320
- OpenAlex
- W2145615592
- Cited by
- 305
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 13
- FWCI
- 2.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Purdue University
- Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis
- Office of Naval Research (N00014-12-1-1011, N00014-12-1, N00014-12, N00014)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- working memory, complex span, n-back task, task overlap, individual differences, sample composition, diminishing returns
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests
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