A Review of the Differences in Developmental, Psychiatric, and Medical Endophenotypes Between Males and Females with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Open accessAbstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is over four times more prevalent in males compared to females. Increased understanding of sex differences in ASD endophenotypes could add insight into possible etiologies and the assessment and management of the disorder. Consequently, the purpose of this review is to describe current literature regarding sex differences in the developmental, psychiatric, and medical endophenotypes of ASD in order to illustrate current knowledge and areas in need of further research. Our review found that repetitive behaviors and restricted interests are more common in males than females with ASD. Intellectual disability is more common in females than males with ASD. Attention to detail may be more common in males than females with ASD and epilepsy may be more common in females than males with ASD, although limited research in these areas prevent definitive conclusions from being drawn. There does not appear to be a sex difference in other developmental, psychiatric, and medical symptoms associated with ASD, or the research was contradictory or too sparse to establish a sex difference. Our review is unique in that it offers detailed discussion of sex differences in three major endophenotypes of ASD. Further research is needed to better understand why sex differences exist in certain ASD traits and to evaluate whether phenotypic sex differences are related to different pathways of development, assessment, and treatment of the disorder.
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There is increasing evidence that a female autism phenotype may exist.
“However, there is increasing evidence that a female autism phenotype may exist.”
From Barriers to Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis for Young Women and Girls: a Systematic Review (2021) · cites this paper as Rubenstein et al. 2015
Females may be poorly served by the current conceptualisation and recognition of ASD.
“This, in addition to possible differences in the female ASD phenotype (see Rubenstein et al. 2015 for a review), indicates that females may be poorly served by the current conceptualisation and recognition of ASD.”
From Barriers to Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis for Young Women and Girls: a Systematic Review (2021) · cites this paper as Rubenstein et al. 2015
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- Authors
- Rubenstein, E., Wiggins, L. D., & Lee, L.-C.
- Affiliations
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lee, Li-Ching
- Venue
- Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities
- Published
- 2014-08-26
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 119-139
- ISSN
- 1056-263X (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3580
- PMC
- PMC4490156
- OpenAlex
- W1968376929
- Cited by
- 84
- References
- 115
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 3.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (CC999999)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetics and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, sex differences, endophenotypes, repetitive behavior, restricted interests, intellectual disability, attention to detail, epilepsy, psychiatric symptoms, clinical symptoms
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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