Review of virtual reality treatment in psychiatry: evidence versus current diffusion and use
Abstract
Purpose of review This review provides an overview of the current evidence base for and clinical applications of the use of virtual reality (VR) in psychiatric practice, in context of recent technological developments.Recent findings The use of VR in psychiatric practice shows promise with much of the research demonstrating clinical effectiveness for conditions including post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety and phobias, chronic pain, rehabilitation, and addictions. However, more research is needed before the use of VR is considered a clinical standard of practice in some areas. The recent release of first generation consumer VR products signals a change in the viability of further developing VR systems and applications. As applications increase so will the need for good quality research to best understand what makes VR effective, and when VR is not appropriate for clinical services. As the field progresses, it is hopeful that the flexibility afforded by this technology will yield superior outcomes and a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms impacting those outcomes.
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Numerous studies have integrated VR with various psychotherapies, and their effectiveness and safety have been preliminarily validated.
“Numerous studies have integrated VR with various psychotherapies, and their effectiveness and safety have been preliminarily validated (16–18).”
From A virtual reality-based self-guided training on identification of negative automatic thoughts in healthy adults: a mixed-methods feasibility study (2024) · cites this paper as [18]
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“These studies used a head‐mounted display (HMD) through which participants can be immersed in an interactive virtual reality scenario [19].”
Impact of AI-Powered Solutions in Rehabilitation Process: Recent Improvements and Future Trends
Khalid, U. B., Naeem, M., Stasolla, F., Syed, M., Abbas, M., & Coronato, A. (2024) · International Journal of General Medicine · doi:10.2147/ijgm.s453903 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Tabbaa, L., Searle, R., Bafti, S. M., Hossain, M. M., Intarasisrisawat, J., Glancy, M., & Ang, C. S. (2021) · Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive Mobile Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies · doi:10.1145/3495002 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“A growing body of research has shown that VR can induce varied emotions such as fear [51], happiness [11], sadness [11], relaxation [9] and anxiety [56] using both computergenerated Three-Dimensional Virtual Environments (3D-VEs) [48] and 360° Video-Based Virtual Environments (360-VEs) captured with specialised camera…”
BackgroundVirtual reality in neurorehabilitation: a review of its effects on multiple cognitive domains
Riva, G., Mancuso, V., Cavedoni, S., & Stramba-Badiale, C. (2020) · Expert Review of Medical Devices · doi:10.1080/17434440.2020.1825939 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Virtual reality in medicine: a brief overview and future research directions
Mazurek, J., Kiper, P., Cieślik, B., Rutkowski, S., Mehlich, K., Turolla, A., & Szczepańska-Gieracha, J. (2019) · Human Movement · doi:10.5114/hm.2019.83529 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Church, D., Stapleton, P., Vasudevan, A., & O’Keefe, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.951451 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Tracking the evolution of virtual reality applications to rehabilitation as a field of study
Keshner, E. A., Weiss, P. L., Geifman, D., & Raban, D. R. (2019) · Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1186/s12984-019-0552-6 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Neurorehabilitation of Spatial Memory Using Virtual Environments: A Systematic Review
Montana, J. I., Tuena, C., Serino, S., Cipresso, P., & Riva, G. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm8101516 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“The literature shows that virtual reality is an acceptable and promising therapeutic tool for several pathological fields [13], such as mental health disorders in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety and depression [22,23], or eating disorders [14,24,25] and in neuropsychological deficits, for instanc…”
BackgroundVirtual Reality Therapy: Emerging Topics and Future Challenges
Wiederhold, B. K., & Riva, G. (2019) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2018.29136.bkw · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Vlake, J. H., van Genderen, M. E., Schut, A. F., Verkade, M. A., Wils, E., Gommers, D. A. M. P. J., & van Bommel, J. (2020) · Journal of Intensive Care · doi:10.1186/s40560-019-0422-0 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Efficacy of digital technologies aimed at enhancing emotion regulation skills: Literature review
Jadhakhan, F., Blake, H., Hett, D., & Marwaha, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.809332 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“The rapid emergence of new technologies and the growing interest in applying them in the field of psychology have led to the development of novel virtual reality technology in the field of neuro-rehabilitation (43) and the treatment of various mental health disorders (44).”
BackgroundTHE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN ENHANCING MENTAL HEALTH ADVOCACY: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Okoro, Y. O., Ayo-Farai, O., Maduka, C. P., Okongwu, C. C., & Sodamade, O. T. (2024) · International Journal of Applied Research in Social Sciences · doi:10.51594/ijarss.v6i1.690 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Heo, S., & Park, J.-H. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192315911 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Military personnel have been observed to be less responsive to PTSD treatment than other individuals with PTSD [32], which might have a certain impact on the results.”
BackgroundAkın, B., Kocak, M. Y., Küçükaydın, Z., & Güzel, K. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.15768 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Impact of virtual reality exercises on anxiety and depression in hemodialysis
Turoń-Skrzypińska, A., Tomska, N., Mosiejczuk, H., Rył, A., Szylińska, A., Marchelek‐Myśliwiec, M., Ciechanowski, K., Nagay, R., & Rotter, I. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-39709-y · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Rimer, E., Husby, L. V., & Solem, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.671871 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Extended Reality for Enhanced Telehealth During and Beyond COVID-19: Viewpoint
Ong, T., Wilczewski, H., Paige, S. R., Soni, H., Welch, B. M., & Bunnell, B. E. (2021) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/26520 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Since then, XR telehealth has expanded to a wide variety of remote health care applications in AR telesurgery and telesupervision, MR training and simulations, VR telemental health, and telemonitoring of fully remote interventions and specialized medical equipment with VR/AR [13,38,39].”
BackgroundFeasibility of a Virtual Reality-Based Psychoeducational Tool (VRight) for Depressive Patients
Migoya-Borja, M., Delgado‐Gómez, D., Carmona, R., Porras‐Segovia, A., López-Moríñigo, J.-D., Sanchez-Alonso, M., Albarracín-García, L., Guerra, N., Barrigón, M. L., Alegria, M. M., et al. (2020) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2019.0497 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“11 The first clinical trial exploring the use of VR in mental health focused on phobias in 1995.”
BackgroundSygel, K., & Wallinius, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.673089 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“This may, for example, be achieved through using immersive VR as opposed to two-dimensional computer simulation, There is an expanding body of literature on the use of clinical VR in general psychiatry, particularly in the areas of posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety and phobias, schizophrenia, eating disorders, su…”
BackgroundRahman, M. M., Khatun, F., Sami, S. I., & Uzzaman, A. (2022) · Array · doi:10.1016/j.array.2022.100178 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“The medical professionals and students are using 5G enabled high-end VR to simulate operations, and clinics are using an innovative VR therapy to assist patients, recover from chronic pain or injuries [116].”
MethodHelou, S., Khalil, N., Daou, M., & Helou, E. E. (2023) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076231178619 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“These types of apps may prove effective with some phobias when they offer experiences that mimic in vivo exposure.(31,48) However, more research with larger samples is still needed to establish this evidence across all types of phobias.”
BackgroundTransforming treatments for schizophrenia: Virtual reality, brain stimulation and social cognition.
Gainsford, K., Fitzgibbon, B., Fitzgerald, P., & Hoy, K. (2020) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112974 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Ma, L., Mor, S., Anderson, P. L., Baños, R., Botella, C., Bouchard, S., Cárdenas‐López, G., Donker, T., Fernández‐Álvarez, J., Lindner, P., et al. (2021) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2021.1939410 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge that limitations exist in both clinical research and practice, which may hinder the propagation and widespread use of technology-assisted psychotherapies (Mishkind et al., 2017; Page & Coxon, 2016).”
BackgroundHernandez, R., Burrows, B., Browning, M. H. E. M., Solai, K., Fast, D., Litbarg, N. O., Wilund, K. R., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2021) · Kidney360 · doi:10.34067/kid.0005522020 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Virtual reality exposure versus prolonged exposure for PTSD: Which treatment for whom?
Norr, A. M., Smolenski, D. J., Katz, A. C., Rizzo, A., ROTHBAUM, B. O., Difede, J., Koenen‐Woods, P., Reger, M. A., & Reger, G. M. (2018) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22751 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationTabbaa, L., Ang, C. S., Siriaraya, P., She, W. J., & Prigerson, H. G. (2020) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2020.1848161 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…practical guidelines were found that aims to assist clinicians on how to administer VR for therapy 1 such as monitoring additional measures on top of the therapy outcome measures that are related to VR use, including monitoring levels of dizziness or nausea when using VR (Mishkind et al., 2017).”
BackgroundWeitzman, R. E., Wong, K., Worrall, D. M., Park, C., McKee, S., Tufts, R. E., Teng, M. S., & Iloreta, A. M. (2021) · The Laryngoscope · doi:10.1002/lary.29529 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“chiatric disorders through exposure therapy, simulation, and rehabilitation.(16,17) Despite the potential benefits of”
BackgroundA Decade in Review: A Systematic Review of Virtual Reality Interventions for Emotional Disorders
Rowland, D. P., Casey, L. M., Ganapathy, A., Cassimatis, M., & Clough, B. A. (2021) · Psychosocial Intervention · doi:10.5093/pi2021a8 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Yet despite this variability across VRIs, one commonality can be seen in the frequent application of VRIs for disorders with strong cue-exposure components such as anxiety disorders (Mishkind et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialGao, Y., Wang, N., & Liu, N. (2023) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.15743 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Reconstructing Personal Stories in Virtual Reality as a Mechanism to Recover the Self
Georgieva, I., & Georgiev, G. V. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17010026 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Chang, T. P., Hollinger, T., Dolby, T., & Sherman, J. M. (2020) · Simulation in Healthcare The Journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare · doi:10.1097/sih.0000000000000521 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Virtual reality (VR), and specifically Head-Mounted Display Virtual Reality, is a simulation experience that provides a 360-degree interactive environment that has been used for stress inoculation for patients, but not necessarily for healthcare providers.(7,8) Virtual reality has several advantages to consider when a…”
BackgroundHerz, R. S. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11081070 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Clinical adoption of virtual reality in mental health is challenged by lack of high-quality research
Selaskowski, B., Wiebe, A., Kannen, K., Asché, L., Pakos, J., Philipsen, A., & Braun, N. (2024) · npj Mental Health Research · doi:10.1038/s44184-024-00069-8 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Systematic Analysis of Virtual Reality &Augmented Reality
Laghari, A. A., Jumani, A. K., Kumar, K., & Chhajro, M. A. (2021) · International Journal of Information Engineering and Electronic Business · doi:10.5815/ijieeb.2021.01.04 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Past games and other intuitive amusement, VR shows promising applications for relief from discomfort and PTSD, for instruction and plan, for both working from home and office work [14].”
BackgroundThe Symbiosis of Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy and Telemental Health: A Review
Ong, T., Wilczewski, H., Soni, H., Nisbet, Q., Paige, S. R., Barrera, J. F., Welch, B. M., & Bunnell, B. E. (2022) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2022.848066 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Real-time interaction in VR therapy allows patients to feel more comfortable and present with providers (Mishkind et al., 2017; Park et al., 2019).”
BackgroundButti, N., Biffi, E., Genova, C., Romaniello, R., Redaelli, D. F., Reni, G., Borgatti, R., & Urgesi, C. (2020) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-019-4001-4 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“However, VR treatments could be accompanied by unwanted side effects such as nausea and headache, which are referred to as simulator sickness or cyber sickness [68].”
BackgroundKritikos, I., Zoitaki, C., Tzannetos, G., Mehmeti, A., Douloudi, M., Nikolaou, G., Alevizopoulos, G., & Koutsouris, D. (2020) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s20051244 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Stramba-Badiale, C., Mancuso, V., Cavedoni, S., Pedroli, E., Cipresso, P., & Riva, G. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.00720 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Miegel, F. S., Bücker, L., Kühn, S., Mostajeran, F., Moritz, S., Baumeister, A., Lohse, L., Blömer, J., Grzella, K., & Jelinek, L. (2022) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-022-09992-5 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“The range of the total score is 0 to 40 (subclinical [0–7], small [8–15], medium [16–23] severe [24-31], and extreme [32–40]) [42].”
BackgroundArtificial intelligence in medicine and research – the good, the bad, and the ugly
Grech, V., Cuschieri, S., & Eldawlatly, A. A. (2023) · Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia · doi:10.4103/sja.sja_344_23 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“virtual reality for the treatment of psychiatric disorders and pain reduction,[15,16] indefatigable assistants in radiology and”
BackgroundMiller, N., Stepanova, E. R., Desnoyers-Stewart, J., Adhikari, A., Kitson, A., Pennefather, P. P., Quesnel, D. T., Brauns, K., Friedl-Werner, A., Stahn, A. C., et al. (2023) · Designing Interactive Systems Conference · doi:10.1145/3563657.3595998 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Critically, the cultivation of emotions, skills, and behaviours in virtual environments by a VR user (or ‘immersant’) can contribute to well-being that extends to everyday life beyond the immersive experience [84, 136].”
BackgroundCalzavara‐Pinton, I., Nibbio, G., Barlati, S., Bertoni, L., Necchini, N., Zardini, D., Baglioni, A., Paolini, S., Poddighe, L., Bulgari, V., et al. (2024) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14080791 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Effect of sensorimotor rehabilitation based on an immersive virtual reality model on mental health
Castillo, H. B., Pham, T. T., & Vicente, B. (2021) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.5541 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Dietrichkeit, M., Grzella, K., Nagel, M., & Moritz, S. (2020) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112787 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Hernández, R., Wilund, K., Solai, K., Tamayo, D., Fast, D., Venkatesan, P., Lash, J. P., Lora, C. M., Martinez, L., Alemañy, G. M., et al. (2023) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/45100 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“More recently, VR technology has been used in clinical settings with patients experiencing high-level pain and psychological phobias with favorable results [30,53].”
Realidad virtual y sus aplicaciones en trastornos mentales: una revisión
Castillo, H. B., & Benjamín Vicente, P. (2018) · Revista chilena de neuro-psiquiatría · doi:10.4067/s0717-92272018000200127 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Virtual reality as a psychotherapeutic tool: current uses and limitations
Asiain, J., Braun, M., & Roussos, A. (2021) · British Journal of Guidance and Counselling · doi:10.1080/03069885.2021.1885008 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Mishkind et al. (2017) conclude that the use of VR in mental health has shown a lot of”
BackgroundInfluentialKim, H., Kim, B.-H., Kim, M.-K., Eom, H., & Kim, J.-J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.959696 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Servera, M., Sáez, B., & Gelabert, J. M. (2020) · Revista de Psicología Clínica con Niños y Adolescentes · doi:10.21134/rpcna.2020.07.2.2 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Designing virtual natural environments for older adults in residential care facilities
Lundstedt, R., Håkansson, C., Lõhmus, M., & Wallergård, M. (2021) · Technology and Disability · doi:10.3233/tad-210344 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“…in rehabilitation of neurological disorders and stroke [21], in cognitive rehabilitation, addressing gait and cognitive deficits after brain injury [22,23]; and in treatment of psychiatric disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety disorders, phobias and pain management [23,24].”
Vlake, J. H., van Bommel, J., Wils, E., Korevaar, T. I. M., Hellemons, M. E., Klijn, E., Schut, A. F., Labout, J. A. M., van Bavel, M. P., van Mol, M. M. C., et al. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-049704 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Brander, M., Egger, S., Hürlimann, N., Seifritz, E., Sumner, R. W., Vetter, S., & Magnenat, S. (2021) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/26820 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“We believe this system may enable and encourage psychotherapists to expand their therapeutic skills, to routinely using this technology in research and clinical practice [13,33-35].”
BackgroundMethodLee, S. A. S. (2019) · Current Developmental Disorders Reports · doi:10.1007/s40474-019-00169-7 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Shirtcliff, E. A., Finseth, T., Winer, E. H., Glahn, D. C., Conrady, R. A., & Drury, S. S. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-03129-x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“As VR became more feasible, cost-effective, fl exible, and with greater hardware and software capabilities so too did the range of treatment applications in psychiatry [49 – 51].”
BackgroundDong, Y., Faridniya, H., Ebrahimi, Z., & Zhao, Z. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13080859 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“For instance, VR has been successfully employed in clinical settings to manage severe pain and psychological phobias [43,44].”
Assessing and Treating Offenders with Mental Illness
Nicholls, T. L., Butler, A., Kendrick‐Koch, L., Brink, J., Jones, R. M., & Simpson, A. I. F. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-00452-1_2 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Virtual nature, inner forest: Prospects for immersive virtual nature art and well-being
Williams, J. L., Langley, S., & Borda, A. (2021) · Virtual Creativity · doi:10.1386/vcr_00046_1 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The Walking Wounded: Emerging Treatments for PTSD
Bestha, D. P., Soliman, L., Blankenship, K. M., & Rachal, J. (2018) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-018-0941-8 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Silva, R., de Carvalho, D. C. M., Martins, P., & Rocha, T. (2022) · International Conference on Software Development and Technologies for Enhancing Accessibility and Fighting Info-exclusion (DSAI) · doi:10.1145/3563137.3563171 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“A VR system could be available such as Head Mounted Displays (HMD), head and body tracking devices and CAVE (Cave Automatic Virtual Environment), creating the feeling of immersion in a virtual world [14].”
MethodVlake, J. H., van Bommel, J., Wils, E., Korevaar, T. I. M., Taccone, F. S., Schut, A. F., Elderman, J. H., Labout, J. A. M., Raben, A., Dijkstra, A., et al. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-061876 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Papini, S., Young, C. C., Gebhardt, C. S., Perrone, A., Morikawa, H., Otto, M. W., Roache, J. D., & Smits, J. A. J. (2020) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2020.106013 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Karami, B., Koushki, R., Arabgol, F., Rahmani, M., & Vahabie, A. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/s2jvy · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Virtual Environment for VR-Based Stress Therapy System Design Element: User Perspective
Zaharuddin, F. A., Ibrahim, N., Yusof, A. M., Rusli, M. E., & Mahidin, E. M. M. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-34032-2_3 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Li, L., Zhu, X., Wan, S., Wang, L., Pan, L., Peng, S., & Chen, J. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-08224-7 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Kundi, G. M. (2023) · Open Access Public Health and Health Administration Review · doi:10.59644/oapr.1(1).2022.10 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
A Virtual Reality Approach to Overcome Glossophobia among University Students
Balachandran, A., Vohra, P., & Srivastava, A. (2024) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3698141 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Virtual reality (VR) is a computer-generated interface having interactive environments to provide an immersive experience to individuals [36].”
Social cognition training using virtual reality for people with schizophrenia: a scoping review
Pérez-Ferrara, D., Flores-Medina, Y., Landa-Ramírez, É., Sánchez, D. J. G., Luna-Padilla, J. A., Sosa-Millán, A. L., & Mondragón‐Maya, A. (2024) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-024-01010-2 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“In addition, as VR becomes more accessible, affordable, and more widely 1 3 researched, owing to continual technological advancements, it will ultimately be well positioned as a home-based treatment approach (Bohil et al. 2011 ; Mishkind et al. 2017 ; Turner and Casey 2014).”
Elbasha, A. M., Naga, Y. S., Othman, M., Moussa, N. D., & El-Wakil, H. S. (2022) · Alexandria Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1080/20905068.2021.2024349 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Artificial neural network has been widely used in many medical fields including computer-aided surgery operation navigation systems [14], virtual tools for surgery [14], pain management, and psychiatric disorders [15].”
MethodFactors to Consider When Designing a Virtual Environment to Treat Stress
Zaharuddin, F. A., Ibrahim, N., Rusli, M. E., Mahidin, E. M. M., & Yusof, A. M. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-34032-2_4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Wang, X., Qu, J., Bu, L., & Zhu, S. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2025.3549581 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“VR can reduce physical pain by immersing patients in virtual environments [43].”
Evaluación neuropsicológica y realidad virtual: una revisión sistemática
Reyes, A. C. D., & López, J. V. S. (2023) · Informes Psicológicos · doi:10.18566/infpsic.v23n1a07 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy
Turman, M. L., Olden, M., Emrich, M., & Difede, J. (2024) · CBT: science into practice · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-72720-7_4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Noh, H., Chishti, S. M. K., Jo, H., Newhouse, N., Kim, S., Kleek, M. G. V., & Kang, Y. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3713387 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“As AR technologies become more widely available, there will be a growing need for good quality training and research to understand what makes AR effective, for whom, and in what contexts it is appropriate for clinical use [77].”
Zheng, Y., Kong, L., Xue, J., Wei, X., Zhu, T., Mao, X., & Zhang, Q. (2025) · Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation · doi:10.1177/10538127251321140 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Munir, F., Chopra, H., Nasir, M. H., Simhachalam, L. V., Anis, Z. B., Bano, S., Islam, N., Baig, A. A., Heyat, M. B. B., Parveen, S., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Systems Assurance Engineering and Management · doi:10.1007/s13198-025-02801-9 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Many different electronic devices, like surgical navigation systems for computer-assisted surgery (Tepper et al. 2017), virtual-reality continuum tools for surgery, pain management, mental diseases, and AI-based technologies, enable augmented medicine (Sheikh et al. 2021; Mishkind et al. 2017).”
Intawong, K., Homla, P., Wongwan, N., Niemsup, S., Worragin, P., Langgapin, S., & Puritat, K. (2025) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440251341985 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Recent years have seen the emergence of virtual reality (VR) technology as a promising tool in various fields, including healthcare (Orlosky et al., 2017), surgical training (Pulijala et al., 2018), and psychiatry (Mishkind et al., 2017).”
Goharinejad, S., Goharinezhad, S., Moulaei, K., Krüger, B., & Spittler, T. (2026) · INQUIRY The Journal of Health Care Organization Provision and Financing · doi:10.1177/00469580251413101 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“51,58 The moderate heterogeneity observed ( I 2 = 46.28”
InfluentialMcIntyre, J., McLinden, J., Borgheai, S. B., & Shahriari, Y. (2023) · International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering · doi:10.1109/ner52421.2023.10123834 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The literature shows that VR can be used as a therapeutic tool in many neurological disorders [6].”
BackgroundZhang, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1626476 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Unmet Needs in Modern Psychiatric Practice
Sampogna, G., Luciano, M., Vecchio, V. D., Giallonardo, V., Pocai, B., Pompili, M., & Fiorillo, A. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42637-8_1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Horigome, T., Yoshida, S., Tanikawa, T., Mimura, M., & Kishimoto, T. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1030050 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“The development of virtual reality (VR) exposure therapy (VRET) for anxiety disorders has recently been attempted (Mishkind et al., 2017).”
BackgroundThe Pandemic of Invisible Victims in American Mental Health
Appel, J. M. (2024) · The Hastings Center Report · doi:10.1002/hast.1573 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Yang, B., Liao, C., Yang, Y., Shi, B., Zhang, C., & Li, C. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1479207 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Numerous studies have integrated VR with various psychotherapies, and their effectiveness and safety have been preliminarily validated (16 – 18).”
The Development of Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) for Young Adults in Russia and Indonesia
Hidayat, B., Leybina, A. V., Raudah, S. F., Iskandar, W., Malik, A., Shanty, I. L., & Suhada, D. (2025) · The Open Psychology Journal · doi:10.2174/0118743501387878250616095512 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
- Authors
- Mishkind, M. C., Norr, A. M., Katz, A. C., & Reger, G. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Colorado Anschutz (US)
- VA Puget Sound Health Care System (US)
- University of Washington (US)
- Corresponding author
- Mishkind, Matthew C.
- Venue
- Current Psychiatry Reports
- Published
- 2017-09-18
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 80-80
- ISSN
- 1523-3812 (ISSN-L)
- 1535-1645
- OpenAlex
- W2754266853
- Cited by
- 136
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 10
- FWCI
- 1.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Current Psychiatry Reports (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Keywords
- virtual reality, virtual reality therapy, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety disorders, phobia, chronic pain, rehabilitation, addiction treatment, clinical effectiveness
- MeSH terms
- Mental Disorders, Humans, Psychiatry, Treatment Outcome, Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy
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