Modifications of mRNA vaccine structural elements for improving mRNA stability and translation efficiency

In the paper

“Although high GC-content may cause problems for mRNA secondary structure, the higher GC sequence translates 100-fold higher than a low GC sequence (Kudla et al. 2006).”

What the sources say

• Disputed

  The Results (page unavailable) attribute higher protein output from GC-rich GFP to higher mRNA levels, not a higher translation rate. The Discussion likewise says codon optimization increased GFP mRNA levels rather than its translation rate. The claimed 100-fold increase in translation is therefore contrary to the paper's finding. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  cites Kudla et al. 2006 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Codon composition is known to influence translation efficiency.”

What the sources say

• Disputed

  The Discussion says a translational explanation for codon-optimization effects had often been assumed but not thoroughly tested; it attributes most observed effects in mammalian cells to changes in mRNA levels instead. The Results found no detectable difference in translation rates between two genes with different proportions of preferred codons. The paper therefore does not present an effect on translation efficiency as established. (LLM, conf=0.79)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  cites Kudla et al. 2006 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The 3ʹ-UTRs of α- and β-globin mRNAs are found in many in vitro-transcribed (IVT) mRNA, and they contain sequence features that enhance the translation and stability of mRNA (Sahin et al. 2014; Karikó et al. 1999).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The “5′- and 3′-UTRs” section says that many IVT mRNAs contain α- and β-globin 3′ UTRs and that these UTRs harbour sequence elements increasing mRNA stability and translation. This directly supports the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.95)

  cites Sahin et al. 2014 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Karikó et al. 1999 source

In the paper

“The modified nucleosides escape the type interferons (IFNs) induced antiviral pathways and are targeted to break and block invading mRNA; therefore they can be used to create mRNA vaccines with significantly improved translation efficiency (Verbeke et al. 2019).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Section 2.3 (page not provided) states that incorporating modified nucleosides can give mRNA vaccines strongly enhanced translation capacity by avoiding type IFN-induced antiviral pathways. It says those pathways, rather than the modified nucleosides, are programmed to degrade and inhibit invading mRNA. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Verbeke et al. 2019 source

In the paper

“Substituting rare codons with identical frequent codons boosts yield as reusing same tRNA speeds up translation due to amino-acylation of tRNAs near ribosomes (Cannarozzi et al. 2010).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Introduction (page unavailable) reports that replacing rare codons with frequent synonymous codons improves translation efficiency. The Results and Discussion (pages unavailable) separately link faster translation to reusing the same tRNA through codon order, not to that replacement; the Discussion treats retention of tRNAs near ribosomes as a proposed mechanism. The source therefore supports the yield claim but not the sentence’s asserted causal link. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites Cannarozzi et al. 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The translation elongation rate is controlled by the accessibility of cognate tRNA species and the codon usage modification to prevent the match rare tRNA sequence of species and integrate sequences that match more common tRNA species (Hanson and Coller 2018).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  In “Codons affect translation elongation” (page unavailable), the review says elongation depends on the tRNA pool because ribosomes wait longer for rare cognate tRNAs. It also reports faster translation of codon-optimized mRNAs than non-optimized mRNAs, supporting the claim that codon usage can be modified to affect elongation rate. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites Hanson and Coller 2018 source

In the paper

“Screening mRNA against exonuclease activity, promoting pre-mRNA splicing, and functioning as binding site of eIF4F heterodimeric translation initiation complex are all important functions of 5′-capping (Izaurralde et al. 1994; Gallie 1991).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Izaurralde et al. 1994 source
• ?Could not verify

  The paper’s opening discussion and Discussion section address the cap’s roles in translation and mRNA stability, not pre-mRNA splicing. Searches for splicing and for cap-dependent removal of introns found no passage stating that capping promotes splicing; a splicing study appears only in the References. (LLM, conf=0.75)

  cites Gallie 1991 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The 5′-cap structure is a key factor in the host's ability to differentiate between self and non-self mRNA molecules (Devarkar et al. 2016).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The paper explains that modifications at the 5′ end of cellular mRNAs help RIG-I distinguish self from nonself RNA (p. 1). Its Results and Discussion (p. 5) identify the 2′-O-methylation in Cap-1 as essential for avoiding RIG-I recognition; the m7G Cap-0 structure alone does not prevent recognition. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Devarkar et al. 2016 source

In the paper

“The structural characteristics of mRNA such as the CAP, poly(A) tail, and untranslated regions (UTRs) directly impact mRNA stability and translation efficiency (Orlandini von Niessen et al. 2019; Holtkamp et al. 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  cites Orlandini von Niessen et al. 2019 source
• Supported

  The Discussion states that the poly(A) tail regulates mRNA fate in synergy with the 5′ cap and that 3′ UTR changes improve translational characteristics. The results section on combined modifications reports improved RNA stability and sustained protein expression. The paper thus supports the broad claim about these structural features, although it did not separately test the cap. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites Holtkamp et al. 2006 source

In the paper

“(iii) Shorter 5′UTRs may be used, as past research has indicated that this type of 5′UTR is better for mRNA translation (Leppek et al. 2018).”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The section ‘5′ UTRs as platforms for RNA structure’ describes variation in UTR length but does not compare translation efficiency by length. ‘5′ UTR structures in ribosome scanning’ notes that some exceptionally short UTRs permit scanning-free initiation; it does not say shorter UTRs are generally better for translation. Searches for short UTRs and translational efficiency found no such comparison in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.70)

  cites Leppek et al. 2018 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Deleting the poly(A) region from mRNA results in mRNA being unstable compared to the intact gene (Whitelaw et al. 1986).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Abstract reports that deleting the poly(A) site from the human α-globin gene produces very little stable mRNA compared with the intact gene. It describes mRNA instability as the presumed explanation, not a demonstrated result. The claim also omits that this finding concerns the α-globin gene’s poly(A) site rather than deletion of a region from mRNA itself. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites Whitelaw et al. 1986 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The 3ʹ-UTRs of α- and β-globin mRNAs are found in many in vitro-transcribed (IVT) mRNA, and they contain sequence features that enhance the translation and stability of mRNA (Sahin et al. 2014; Karikó et al. 1999).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The “5ʹ-and 3ʹ-UTRs” section states that many IVT mRNAs contain the 3ʹ-UTRs of α- and β-globin mRNAs. It also says these UTRs harbour sequence elements that increase mRNA stability and translation. (LLM, conf=0.95)

  cites Sahin et al. 2014 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Karikó et al. 1999 source

In the paper

“The steady effect of human β-globin 3ʹ-UTR sequences is enhanced when two human β-globin 3ʹ-UTRs are placed in a head-to-tail orientation (Holtkamp et al. 2006).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Results section on tandem β-globin 3′ UTRs says that two human β-globin 3′ UTRs fused head to tail produced higher protein levels and longer protein persistence than a single UTR. The Discussion explicitly says two serial UTRs were better than one at improving RNA translational characteristics. The paper does not use the phrase “steady effect,” but it supports the stabilizing effect described. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites Holtkamp et al. 2006 source

In the paper

“The poly(A) tail steadies mRNA and boosts protein translation, and the length of the poly(A) tail is proportional to translation efficiency.”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  In “Translational Regulation and Poly(A) Tail Control during the Somatic Cell Cycle” (Figure 3B), the paper reports a relationship between tail length and translation efficiency only for short tails, up to about 20 nt. It says lengthening beyond that does not further influence translation, so the unqualified claim of proportionality overstates the finding. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites Park et al. 2016 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Partly supported

  The Introduction says poly(A) tails can enhance translation efficiency. But “Does size matter?” reports a relationship between tail length and translation in early development and certain other contexts, while noting that a global analysis found no significant correlation beyond embryonic stages. The source therefore does not support an unqualified, proportional relationship. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Jalkanen et al. 2014 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Furthermore, mRNA secondary structure design can be modified to improve mRNA stability against endonuclease cleavage and chemical degradation (Wayment-Steele et al. 2021).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Introduction says that increasing mRNA secondary structure can reduce hydrolysis. The Results section, “A biophysical model for RNA degradation,” says the framework also applies to degradation suppressed by RNA structure, including digestion by endonucleases. The paper presents this improvement as a computational prediction, not an experimentally demonstrated increase in stability. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites Wayment-Steele et al. 2021 source

In the paper

“Screening mRNA against exonuclease activity, promoting pre-mRNA splicing, and functioning as binding site of eIF4F heterodimeric translation initiation complex are all important functions of 5′-capping (Izaurralde et al. 1994; Gallie 1991).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Izaurralde et al. 1994 source
• Supported

  The Discussion reports that a cap increased mRNA stability two- to fourfold. The section on translational efficiency in tobacco also describes loss of the cap through exonuclease attack, supporting the paraphrase that capping protects mRNA against such activity. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites Gallie 1991 source

In the paper

“Furthermore, the rate of codon-dependent translation elongation has been a primary factor of mRNA stability, codon modification is critical for mRNA stability (Presnyak et al. 2015).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Results section, “Optimal codon content directly influences mRNA decay rate,” reports that changing codon composition altered mRNA decay and calls optimal codon content a critical determinant of stability. The Introduction also links codon-dependent translation elongation to mRNA stability. These passages support the citing sentence’s point about codon modification. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Presnyak et al. 2015 source

In the paper

“Furthermore, the rate of codon-dependent translation elongation has been a primary factor of mRNA stability, codon modification is critical for mRNA stability (Presnyak et al. 2015).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Introduction states that codon-dependent translation elongation rate is an important determinant of mRNA stability. The Discussion reports that changing codons altered mRNA stability and provides evidence that the effect operates through translation elongation rates; the experiments described were in budding yeast. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites Presnyak et al. 2015 source

In the paper

“Furthermore, mRNA transcribed in vitro using ARCA has been found to have a longer half-life in cultivated cells (Grudzien et al. 2006).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Results report longer half-lives for ARCA-capped luciferase mRNA than for conventionally capped mRNA with both tested poly(A) lengths (282 versus 156 minutes and 90 versus 60 minutes). The in vivo measurement methods describe introducing the RNA into cultured MM3MG cells and measuring its stability there. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Grudzien et al. 2006 source

In the paper

“The 5′- and 3′- UTRs comprising of regulatory sequence elements are known to regulate the mRNA stability.”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The paper’s introductory section says that 3′ UTRs can regulate mRNA stability, and the Results report increased stability when the 3′ UTR was lengthened in nonpolyadenylated reporter mRNA. The passages do not establish that 5′ UTRs regulate stability; this study also attributes its measured 3′ UTR effect primarily to length rather than regulatory sequence. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Tanguay and Gallie 1996 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Screening mRNA against exonuclease activity, promoting pre-mRNA splicing, and functioning as binding site of eIF4F heterodimeric translation initiation complex are all important functions of 5′-capping (Izaurralde et al. 1994; Gallie 1991).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Izaurralde et al. 1994 source
• Partly supported

  The Discussion (page not provided) identifies the 5′ cap as a recognition site for eIF-4E, a subunit of eIF-4F, and says eIF-4F binds the cap. It does not describe eIF-4F as heterodimeric, so that structural detail is unsupported by our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites Gallie 1991 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“It is a critical factor in determining the longevity of mRNA molecules (Park et al. 2016; Jalkanen et al. 2014).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Abstract states that poly(A) tails are critical for mRNA stability, which supports the claim about mRNA longevity. The Introduction also describes the poly(A) tail as important for mRNA stability. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites Park et al. 2016 source
• Supported

  The Introduction says poly(A) tails are vital for regulating mRNA degradation and that tail shortening is a key step initiating decay. The “Does size matter?” section also describes how changes in tail size can signal mRNA degradation. Together, these support the claim that the poly(A) tail is important to mRNA longevity. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Jalkanen et al. 2014 source

In the paper

“Furthermore, increasing the G-C fraction of mRNA improves mRNA stability (Homma et al. 2016).”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The Introduction and Discussion address codon usage, translation speed, and translational accuracy, not mRNA stability. Searches for increased G-C fraction, GC content, and mRNA stability found no passage in our copy supporting the claimed effect. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  cites Homma et al. 2016 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The poly(A) tail is important for mRNA stability and translation success (Kudla et al. 2006).”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The Discussion links GC content to the production of polyadenylated mRNA and examines mRNA stability, but does not say that the poly(A) tail is important for stability or translation. Searches for “poly(A) tail,” “polyadenylation translation efficiency,” and “poly(A)” found no passage making that claim; the reference list alone does not establish it. (LLM, conf=0.74)

  cites Kudla et al. 2006 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“However, with the advancement of lipid nanoparticle techniques, mRNA vaccine stability can be maintained under less rigorous settings (Reichmuth et al. 2016).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The executive summary (page unavailable) says lipid nanoparticles protect mRNA against degradation, supporting the stability aspect. The paper discusses instability under physiological conditions but does not say that LNP-formulated vaccines remain stable under less rigorous storage or handling conditions. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites Reichmuth et al. 2016 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“IVT is a low-cost method of mRNA synthesis; however the immunogenicity of mRNA is the most challenging obstacle it faces (Sahin et al. 2014).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The “Immune-stimulatory activity of IVT mRNA” section calls innate immune activation a major disadvantage for protein-replacement therapies, but an added benefit for vaccination. It does not identify immunogenicity as the most challenging obstacle for mRNA generally; the “Progress in improving mRNA delivery” section also describes substantial delivery challenges. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Sahin et al. 2014 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The reduced efficacy of protein expression produced by high GC concentration needs to be addressed (Wang et al. 2021).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  In “Eliminating immunogenicity of mRNA,” the paper explicitly warns that excessive GC content can cause low efficacy of protein expression. This supports the citing sentence’s point about high GC concentration. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Wang et al. 2021 source

In the paper

“BNT162b2 (BioNTech/Pfizer) and mRNA-1273 (Moderna) used a mixture of altered nucleotide 1mΨ modifications and dsRNA fragment eviction in the mRNA manufacturing procedure to significantly lower innate immune signaling in response to mRNA (Walsh et al. 2020; Jackson et al. 2020b).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Introduction identifies BNT162b2 as a nucleoside-modified RNA vaccine, and the Discussion says it shares an RNA production and purification process with BNT162b1. Neither section specifies 1mΨ modification or dsRNA-fragment removal, demonstrates a significant reduction in innate immune signaling from those steps, or describes mRNA-1273’s manufacturing process. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites Walsh et al. 2020 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Partly supported

  The Discussion says mRNA-1273 uses modified nucleotides that avoid early activation of interferon-associated genes, supporting the general point about reduced innate immune signaling. It does not identify the modification as 1mΨ, describe dsRNA-fragment removal during manufacture, or address BNT162b2; the Methods > Vaccine section likewise describes mRNA-1273 without those manufacturing details. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Jackson et al. 2020b sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“mRNA vaccines must be stored and carried at extremely low temperatures as compared to protein-based vaccinations that can be stored and transported at lower temperatures (Crommelin et al. 2020).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Introduction describes mRNA vaccine candidates kept at −80 °C and the difficulty of transporting them under those conditions. The storage-conditions table lists frozen storage for three COVID-19 mRNA candidates, but also limited periods at 2–8 °C; the claim's unqualified “must” is too broad. Our copy does not provide the asserted comparison with protein-based vaccines. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Crommelin et al. 2020 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The insertion of modified nucleotides into the poly(A) tail by recombinant poly(A) polymerase inhibits deadenylation by poly(A)-specific nucleases (Korner and Wahle 1997).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The RNA Decay Assays section (page unavailable) reports that DAN did not degrade poly(A) with a phosphorylated 3′ end, supporting the narrower point that a terminal modification can block this nuclease. The Experimental Procedures section describes recombinant yeast poly(A) polymerase, but does not report that it inserted modified nucleotides or that such insertion inhibited deadenylation by poly(A)-specific nucleases generally. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  cites Korner and Wahle 1997 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Therefore, immunizing against the full S protein rather than just one of its structural units may lead to a better response that is not impacted by genetic drift (Liu et al. 2020).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Discussion (p. 6) says that vaccine strategies omitting the NTD cannot induce an important class of neutralizing antibodies, supporting the rationale for including more than one spike region. But the paper does not compare immune responses to full-spike and single-unit immunization or establish that a full-spike response would be unaffected by genetic drift (searched: “genetic drift” and viral escape). (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Liu et al. 2020 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The 5′ cap regulates pre-mRNA splicing and nuclear export, works as a protective structure that shields RNA from exonuclease cleavage, and initiates mRNA translation.”

In the paper

“Modifying the mRNA structural elements particularly the 5′ cap, 5′-and 3′-untranslated regions (UTRs), the coding region, and polyadenylation tail help reduce the excessive mRNA immunogenicity and consistently improve its intracellular stability and translational efficiency.”

In the paper

“When ARCA-capped mRNA was compared to mRNA capped by a conventional cap analog, translation efficiency was twice more than in rabbit reticulocyte lysate (Stepinski et al. 2001).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Stepinski et al. 2001

In the paper

“This effect can be achieved by inserting AU-rich regions into 3′-UTRs ensuring fast mRNA breakdown and a short duration of protein expression (Chen and Shyu 1995).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Shyu 1995 source

In the paper

“The 5′ cap regulates pre-mRNA splicing and nuclear export, works as a protective structure that shields RNA from exonuclease cleavage, and initiates mRNA translation.”

In the paper

“Several studies have linked the length of the poly(A) tail to translation efficiency (Conry et al. 1995).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Conry et al. 1995

In the paper

“(ii) Ribosome recruitment and codon recognition can be prevented by avoiding the existence of highly stable secondary structures”

In the paper

“Modifying the mRNA structural elements particularly the 5′ cap, 5′-and 3′-untranslated regions (UTRs), the coding region, and polyadenylation tail help reduce the excessive mRNA immunogenicity and consistently improve its intracellular stability and translational efficiency.”

• Also stated in: § Introduction · plain

  “This review discussed the iterative optimization and significant modifications of the mRNA structure particularly the 5′ cap, 5′ and 3′UTRs, the coding region, and the poly(A) tail which improve the stability, translation capacity and increase the efficacy of mRNA vaccines to trigger the immune response.”

In the paper

“For mRNA stability and efficient translation, mRNA undergo post-transcriptional changes such as 5′-capping and poly(A).”

In the paper

“By interacting with RNA-binding proteins, UTRs can also influence the rate of mRNA degradation and translation efficiency.”

In the paper

“Using enzymes to cap the 5′ terminus of mRNA is more efficient than using cap analogs such as 7-methylguanosine (Jani and Fuchs 2012; Urbina and Morales-Pison 1633).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Jani and Fuchs 2012
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Urbina and Morales-Pison 1633

In the paper

“The most prevalent ARCA enables only the insertion of a nucleotide at the non-methylated guanosine after 3′-O-methylation of base-methylated guanosine.”

In the paper

“The translational elongation rate and efficiency are also affected by the neighboring nucleotides and codons (Bossi and Ruth 1980).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bossi and Ruth 1980 source

In the paper

“mRNA sequence codon optimization can significantly impact the protein production rate and ribosome bide time.”

In the paper

“A functional 5′ cap structure is required for robust mRNA translation.”

In the paper

“The cap 0 structure of m7GpppN is necessary for effective mRNA translation.”

In the paper

“Kormann et al., demonstrated that 2 weeks following injection of nucleoside-modified mRNA containing 25% thio-uridine and 25% 5-methylcytidine resulted in Epo levels five times greater than that in untreated animals.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kormann et al. 2011 source

In the paper

“The Cap and poly(A) tail located at the 5′- and 3′-ends of mRNA are critical for stability of mRNA in the cytosol.”

In the paper

“The mRNA structure, translational efficiency, and protein-folding machinery are most likely to be altered by substituting the mRNA sequence with rare codons and inserting modified nucleotides (Zhong et al. 2017).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Zhong et al. 2017 source

In the paper

“The employment of “anti-reverse” cap analogs results in a cap that is in the correct orientation Anti-Reverse Cap Analog (ARCAs).”

In the paper

“The 5′ UTR sequence can be adjusted to improve mRNA stability and translation accuracy by (i) avoiding the presence of start codons and non-canonical start codons in the 5′ UTR which disrupts ORF translation”

In the paper

“Furthermore, distinct areas of cellular and viral 5ʹ- and 3ʹ-UTRs improve mRNA stability and efficiency of translation.”

In the paper

“mRNA also need 5′ and 3′ UTRs around the open reading frame (ORF) to increase half-life, vaccine mRNA expression levels, and translation (Conry et al. 1995).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Conry et al. 1995

In the paper

“The 5′-UTR/3′-UTR, 5′ cap, the poly(A) tail, a rare codon and G:C content can be optimized to improve mRNA stability.”

In the paper

“The intensity and specificity of the immune responses are expected to be influenced by these changes.”

In the paper

“Chemically altering nucleotides, adding poly(A) tails, and optimizing mRNA with a GC-rich sequence are efficient ways to minimize mRNA immunogenicity.”

In the paper

“Chemically altering nucleotides, adding poly(A) tails, and optimizing mRNA with a GC-rich sequence are efficient ways to minimize mRNA immunogenicity.”

In the paper

“mRNA purification is also required after IVT to eliminate immunogenicity.”

In the paper

“Storing and transferring mRNA vaccines to and from warm countries is thus a major technical and financial challenge.”

In the paper

“Chemically altering nucleotides, adding poly(A) tails, and optimizing mRNA with a GC-rich sequence are efficient ways to minimize mRNA immunogenicity.”

In the paper

“The COVID-19 mRNA vaccine highlight that using structurally modified mRNA allows for increased dose tolerance and may be better for eliciting a rapid antibody response.”

In the paper

“The COVID-19 mRNA vaccine highlight that using structurally modified mRNA allows for increased dose tolerance and may be better for eliciting a rapid antibody response.”

In the paper

“5-methylcytidine (m5C), and pseudouridine (ψ) are the most preferred base-pair alterations because they lower immunogenicity while increasing translation efficiency (Weng 2020).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Weng 2020 source

In the paper

“Because antigen translation occurs in the cytoplasm rather than the nucleus; therefore mRNA vaccines have a greater biosafety than DNA vaccines as their antigens are translated into the cytoplasm rather than the nucleus, making it more difficult for the mRNA to integrate into the genome.”

In the paper

“As soon as the sequence encoding the immunogen is available, RNA synthesis may begin on the same platform.”