Making embodied carbon mainstream: a framework for cities to leverage waste, equity, and preservation policy to reduce embodied emissions in buildings

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

A wide array of embodied carbon strategies will need to be used together; there is no silver bullet.

“There is no silver bullet: a wide array of these strategies will need to be used together (Pomponi and Moncaster 2016).”

• cites Pomponi and Moncaster 2016 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Local governments can use this momentum to enhance their role as climate champions, taking responsibility for emissions beyond their own borders.

“Finally, local governments can use this momentum to enhance their role as climate champions, taking responsibility for emissions beyond their own borders (Baker 2018;Solecki et al. 2018).”

• cites Baker 2018 sourcePartly supported

  Section 5 argues that responsibility for embodied emissions requires looking beyond national and regional borders and accounting for geographically dispersed supply chains. It does not discuss local governments using momentum to become climate champions or taking on that responsibility themselves; its discussion is at a different level of governance. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Solecki et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Making strong links to a larger urban agenda offers a way to forge buy-in from a wide range of stakeholders and build coalitions with interest groups already taking a stand around waste, equity and preservation to advance climate justice.

“Making strong links to a larger urban agenda offers a way to forge buy-in from a wide range of stakeholders and build coalitions with interest groups already taking a stand around waste, equity and preservation to advance climate justice (Klinsky and Mavrogianni 2020;Tozer 2020).”

• cites Klinsky and Mavrogianni 2020 sourceCould not verify

  The available passage on the Portland Clean Energy and Community Benefits Fund describes community-led climate action addressing several needs. Neither that passage nor the other retrieved passages says that linking climate justice to a larger urban agenda builds stakeholder buy-in or coalitions with groups focused on waste, equity and preservation. I searched those terms and paraphrases of the coalition claim; the copy is truncated, so a relevant passage may be missing. (LLM, conf=0.68)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Tozer 2020 sourcePartly supported

  Section 4.2, “Coalition building” (page not provided), reports that connecting climate action to other priorities helped municipal departments take ownership of decarbonization, and that coalitions built support for building standards. Section 5, “Discussion” (page not provided), raises equity concerns but does not describe coalitions with groups active on waste, equity, or preservation to advance climate justice. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

These strategies are ripe for greater uptake by local governments through mechanisms that have been shown to enhance sustainability capacity such as building relationships between departments, involving practitioners as local experts, building intermunicipal linkages, engaging with city networks, and relying on proxy data.

“These strategies are ripe for greater uptake by local governments through mechanisms that have been shown to enhance sustainability capacity such as building relationships between departments, involving practitioners as local experts, building intermunicipal linkages, engaging with city networks, and relying on proxy data (Alm et al. 2021;Caldwell et al. 2021;Krause and Hawkins 2021;Lesnikowski et”

• cites Alm et al. 2021 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable) says linkages within municipalities and between municipalities can build political and technical capacity, particularly for water and sewage maintenance. It does not establish the full list of mechanisms attributed to the citations: it does not address city networks or proxy data, and it does not show that involving practitioners as local experts enhances sustainability capacity. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Caldwell et al. 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Krause and Hawkins 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

This research revealed opportunities for local governments that do not have in-house GHG accounting specialists and life-cycle analysis capacity.

“This research revealed opportunities for local governments that do not have in-house GHG accounting specialists and life-cycle analysis capacity.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 31 built environment stakeholders consulted in Metro Vancouver and the Capital Regional District are representative of the relevant local government and built environment perspectives.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Waste regulations are more comprehensive than green demolition bylaws, so contractors have found they have a greater impact on waste diversion.

“Waste regulations are more comprehensive than green demolition bylaws so contractors have found they have a greater impact on waste diversion.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

For governments and organizations with lower capacity, the prospect of yet another climate agenda item risked shutting down conversations, let alone policy development.

“For governments and organizations with lower capacity, the prospect of yet another climate agenda item risked shutting down conversations, let alone policy development.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 31 built environment stakeholders consulted in Metro Vancouver and the Capital Regional District are representative of the relevant local government and built environment perspectives.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Cities need not develop a whole suite of dedicated institutions and mechanisms to implement embodied carbon policy; they can build on existing priorities that already galvanize resources and attention.

“Instead, embodied carbon policy can build on existing priorities that already galvanize resources and attention and have benefited from decades of policy development.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Local and regional governments are already overstretched.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Material substitution strategies typically represent an incremental approach that reduces embodied carbon.

“Material substitution strategies typically represent an incremental approach that reduces embodied carbon.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Embodied carbon is emerging as an important component of the climate agenda for local and regional governments.

“As this perspective begins to register within the construction industry, embodied carbon is emerging as an important component of the climate agenda for local and regional governments (Brandmayr et al. 2018;Broekhoff et al. 2019).”

• cites Brandmayr et al. 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Broekhoff et al. 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

At the local level, consumption-based accounting can be a practical lens to inform decision-making and help prioritize climate action.

“At the local level, this can be a practical lens to inform decision-making and help prioritize climate action.”

May combine two claims.

Both material substitution and demand reduction strategies have strong ties to existing urban strategies for waste, equity, and preservation.

“Both of these areas have strong ties to existing urban strategies for waste, equity, and preservation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The feasibility of a circular economy rests on reducing material throughput because the material currently in circulation cannot meet growing demand.

“But the feasibility of this also rests on reducing material throughput as the material currently in circulation cannot meet growing demand.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Equity-oriented policy foundations for embodied carbon include retrofitting affordable housing, workforce development for deconstruction, and building lower carbon, lower cost housing.

“Foundations in equity-oriented policy include retrofitting affordable housing, workforce development for deconstruction, and building lower carbon, lower cost housing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Preservation policy foundations for embodied carbon include incentivizing building reuse, supporting the use of low carbon materials for retrofits, and encouraging vertical infill.

“Foundations in preservation policy include incentivizing building reuse, supporting the use of low carbon materials for retrofits, and encouraging vertical infill.”

May combine two claims.

In conventional buildings, embodied carbon accounts for approximately 25% of the impact, but in high efficiency buildings, the share of embodied carbon can be upwards of 50%.

“In conventional buildings, embodied carbon accounts for approximately 25% of the impact, but in high efficiency buildings, the share of embodied carbon can be upwards of 50% (Röck et al. 2020).”

• cites Röck et al. 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Material substitution includes substituting lower carbon and carbon sequestering materials for conventional construction materials.

“This includes methods such as substituting lower carbon and carbon sequestering materials for conventional construction materials.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Dominant approaches to embodied carbon in the building sector fall under material substitution and demand reduction strategies.

“Dominant approaches to embodied carbon in the building sector fall under material substitution and demand reduction strategies.”

May combine two claims.

In North America, circular economy feasibility would require demand reduction through a shift in building and land use norms such as reducing building area per occupant, prioritizing efficient occupancy of existing buildings, and removing provisions for private transportation.

“In North America, this would require demand reduction through a shift in building and land use norms such as reducing the building area per occupant, prioritizing efficient occupancy of existing buildings, and removing provisions for private transportation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Material substitution strategies reduce embodied emissions through incremental technical solutions that shift business as usual construction toward greener production and consumption.

“In general terms, material substitution strategies reduce embodied emissions through incremental technical solutions that shift business as usual construction toward greener production and consumption.”

May combine two claims.

Shifting standard emissions accounting practices may be too onerous at the international level, but for cities, simplified methods of consumption-based accounting can be feasible.

“Shifting standard emissions accounting practices may be too onerous at the international level; but for cities, simplified methods of consumption-based accounting can be feasible (Broekhoff et al. 2019)”

• cites Broekhoff et al. 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Demand reduction strategies avoid embodied carbon by reducing resource extraction and repurposing materials already in circulation.

“Demand reduction strategies avoid embodied carbon by reducing resource extraction and repurposing materials already in circulation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Building with mass timber allows for lighter concrete foundations, a synergy with lower carbon concrete.

“Synergies may be found in using them together; for example, building with mass timber allows for lighter concrete foundations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Waste policy foundations for embodied carbon include increasing waste diversion, expanding green demolition, and increasing material efficiencies.

“Foundations in waste policy include increasing waste diversion, expanding green demolition, and increasing material efficiencies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Low carbon materials include lower carbon concrete, steel produced in an electric arc furnace, and timber produced from sustainably harvested wood.

“Low carbon materials include lower carbon concrete (Carbon Smart Materials Palette 2021), 1 steel produced in an electric arc furnace, and timber produced from sustainably harvested wood.”

• cites Carbon Smart Materials Palette 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Material substitution can also mean reducing overall material use by modifying the fabrication of individual building components and designing for material efficiency at the whole building scale.

“It can also mean reducing overall material use by modifying the fabrication of individual building components and designing for material efficiency at the whole building scale.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Material efficiencies include avoiding oversizing structural components, using concrete technologies which reduce the use of concrete per unit area, using offcuts, eliminating construction waste, and prefabrication in a controlled factory setting.

“Material efficiencies include avoiding oversizing structural components, using concrete technologies which reduce the use of concrete per unit area, 2 using offcuts, eliminating construction waste, and prefabrication in a controlled factory setting.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Both material substitution and demand reduction approaches face social and technical hurdles, but they are beginning to be integrated into land use plans, zoning, and building codes, laying the groundwork for more transformative change.

“Both approaches face social and technical hurdles; however, they are beginning to be integrated into land use plans, zoning, and building codes, laying the groundwork for more transformative change.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Current visions for embodied carbon policy broadly fall into two categories: material substitution strategies and demand reduction strategies.

“Current visions for embodied carbon policy broadly fall into two categories: (1) material substitution strategies, or technical solutions that incrementally reduce emissions, and (2) demand reduction strategies, more transformative solutions that avoid emissions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Demand reduction strategies avoid embodied emissions through more transformative solutions such as widespread building and material reuse and shifting land use norms that challenge growth-based economies and high-consumption lifestyles.

“Demand reduction strategies avoid embodied emissions through more transformative solutions such as widespread building and material reuse and shifting land use norms that challenge growth-based economies and high-consumption lifestyles (Fig. 1).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Reducing materials may conflict with energy efficient construction which requires thicker assemblies; this tradeoff would need to be accounted for in the analysis of operational and embodied carbon for a given project.

“Reducing materials may conflict with energy efficient construction which requires thicker assemblies; this tradeoff would need to be accounted for in the analysis of operational and embodied carbon for a given project.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Many in the building sector take a holistic approach that considers material substitution and demand reduction as complementary.

“While some in the building sector place more emphasis on one or the other, many take a holistic approach that considers them as complementary.”

May combine two claims.

Waste, equity, and preservation are common local government priorities for which there is also strong evidence of embodied carbon reductions.

“In particular, waste, equity, and preservation are common local government priorities for which there is also strong evidence of embodied carbon reductions (Bergman et al. 2010;Doran 2021;Frey et al. 2011;Hasik et al. 2019;Nunes et al. 2019;Stephan and Crawford 2016).”

• cites Bergman et al. 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Doran 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Frey et al. 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Additional cities are beginning to explore deconstruction, encouraging rather than requiring it.

“Additional cities are beginning to explore deconstruction, encouraging rather than requiring it.”

May combine two claims.

Typically, the success of waste management is measured by the diversion rate rather than the end use of materials; material reuse is not carefully tracked, if at all.

“Typically, the success of waste management is measured by the diversion rate rather than the end use of materials; material reuse is not carefully tracked, if at all (National Zero Waste Council 2021).”

• cites National Zero Waste Council 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

All three areas-waste, equity, and preservation-coalesce in an emerging model of growth that veers toward the circular economy, shifting energy and resources to retrofit and reuse.

“All three of these areas coalesce in an emerging model of growth that veers toward the circular economy, shifting energy and resources to retrofit and reuse.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Years of policy development in waste, equity, and preservation can serve as a foundation for embodied carbon policy.

“Years of policy development in waste, equity, and preservation can serve as a foundation for embodied carbon policy (Fig. 2).”

May combine two claims.

Much typical waste diversion actually results in downcycling, so serious deconstruction efforts focus on achieving material reuse at the highest level possible.

“Much typical waste diversion actually results in downcycling, so serious deconstruction efforts focus on achieving material reuse at the highest level possible (Nunes et al. 2019).”

• cites Nunes et al. 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The cities of Portland and Vancouver require deconstruction for older single-family homes.

“The cities of Portland and Vancouver require deconstruction for older single-family homes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Across BC, houses were often constructed with old growth timber through the 1970s, so there could be great value in reclaiming those materials.

“Across BC, houses were often constructed with old growth timber through the 1970s, so there could be great value in reclaiming those materials.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Material salvage and reuse is acknowledged to emit less than conventional demolition, but further analysis of precise quantities would be necessary to determine results for a specific region.

“Material salvage and reuse is acknowledged to emit less than conventional demolition, but further analysis of precise quantities would be necessary to determine results for a specific region (Chase 2010).”

• cites Chase 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Displacing the use of newly extracted materials with materials already in circulation has been demonstrated to reduce emissions, so pursuing that benefit even without strict emissions accounting would represent a substantive action.

“Displacing the use of newly extracted materials with materials already in circulation has been demonstrated to reduce emissions (Nunes et al. 2019), so pursuing that benefit even without strict emissions accounting would represent a substantive action.”

• cites Nunes et al. 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Rating systems such as LEED and the Living Building Challenge include credits for low carbon materials, and these can be directly integrated into local policy as requirements.

“Rating systems such as LEED and the Living Building Challenge include credits for low carbon materials, and these can be directly integrated into local policy as requirements.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

It is unclear how the vision for embodied carbon policy will translate into practice, especially for organizations and cities that are not already dedicated to climate action.

“In spite of high-level commitments from global players, it is unclear how the vision for embodied carbon policy will translate into practice, especially for organizations and cities that are not already dedicated to climate action.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Equity-centered policy can reduce embodied emissions through several strategies including affordable housing retrofits, inclusive workforce development and lower cost, lower carbon residential construction.

“Equity-centered policy can reduce embodied emissions through several strategies including affordable housing retrofits, inclusive workforce development and lower cost, lower carbon residential construction.”

May combine two claims.

Implementing deconstruction effectively at scale also requires significant industrial space to warehouse materials and logistics systems to facilitate their reuse, such as material passports.

“It also requires significant industrial space to warehouse materials and the logistics systems to facilitate their reuse, such as material passports.3”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Local governments across the spectrum from high capacity to low capacity cities can accelerate action with this approach.

“Local governments across the spectrum from high capacity to low capacity cities can accelerate action with this approach.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

This circular economy model can contribute to a larger economic transition, supporting lower consumption, and creating demand for additional expertise and labor throughout the building sector.

“This can contribute to a larger economic transition, supporting lower consumption, and creating demand for additional expertise and labor throughout the building sector.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Waste strategies can help reduce embodied emissions in three main ways: material salvage, green demolition, and more efficient construction methods.

“Waste strategies can help reduce embodied emissions in three main ways: material salvage, green demolition, and more efficient construction methods.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Cities with low growth can reframe what is conventionally seen as a disadvantage as an opportunity to make progress by centering demand reduction and focusing on requiring and incentivizing upgrades to their existing building stock.

“In addition, cities with low growth can reframe what is conventionally seen as a disadvantage as an opportunity to make progress: centering demand reduction, they can focus on requiring and incentivizing upgrades to their existing building stock.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Both waste regulations and green demolition bylaws could be significantly expanded.

“However, both approaches could be significantly expanded.”

May combine two claims.

Requests for proposals for public buildings can require low carbon materials, building codes can permit the use of salvaged and regraded material, and zoning can require or incentivize building reuse.

“For example, requests for proposals (RFPs) for public buildings can require low carbon materials, building codes can permit the use of salvaged and regraded material, and zoning can require or incentivize building reuse.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Preservation strategies can help reduce embodied emissions through building reuse, low carbon retrofits, and vertical infill.

“Preservation strategies can help reduce embodied emissions through building reuse, low carbon retrofits, and vertical infill.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Currently, waste is only regulated in limited jurisdictions and for some materials.

“Currently, waste is only regulated in limited jurisdictions and for some materials.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Building on waste, equity, and preservation foundations to bring embodied carbon from the margins to the mainstream offers multiple benefits.

“Building on these foundations to bring embodied carbon from the margins to the mainstream offers multiple benefits.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Material reuse presents an indicator of climate action that could be simpler to track and measure than emissions accounting because it does not require the same level of technical expertise.

“In addition, material reuse presents an indicator of climate action that could be simpler to track and measure than emissions accounting because it does not require the same level of technical expertise.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

These early incremental steps are providing a foundation for wider uptake.

“These early incremental steps are providing a foundation for wider uptake.”

May combine two claims.

The Buy Clean California Act establishes maximum Global Warming Potential for steel, glass and insulation in public construction, while Marin County California goes further with a Low-Carbon Concrete Code.

“The Buy Clean California Act establishes maximum Global Warming Potential for steel, glass and insulation in public construction (State of California 2017) while Marin County California goes further with a Low-Carbon Concrete Code (County of Marin 2019).”

• cites State of California 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites County of Marin 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Deconstruction hubs, or depots for the storage and marketing of reclaimed materials, would need to scale up, providing adequate space to store, sort, and display the increased volume of materials.

“Deconstruction hubs, or depots for the storage and marketing of reclaimed materials, would also need to scale up, providing adequate space to store, sort, and display the increased volume of materials (Elliott et al. 2020).”

• cites Elliott et al. 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

To reduce direct emissions from heating and cooling, governments, NGOs, and utility programs have directed some retrofit programs to lower income housing to enhance equity.

“To reduce direct emissions from heating and cooling, governments, NGOs, and utility programs have directed some retrofit programs to lower income housing to enhance equity (Reames 2016;Tsenkova 2018).”

• cites Reames 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Tsenkova 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The City of Vancouver passed its first Green Demolition Bylaw in 2014.

“In 2014, the City of Vancouver passed its first Green Demolition Bylaw.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Best practice for new construction includes waste management, commonly integrated into green rating systems.

“Best practice for new construction includes waste management, commonly integrated into green rating systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 2018, the Washington State Building Code Council revised its code to allow mid-and high-rise mass-timber construction up to 18 storeys.

“In 2018, the Washington State Building Code Council revised its code to allow mid-and high-rise mass-timber construction up to 18 storeys (Pacheco 2018).”

• cites Pacheco 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In multi-family housing development, underground parking requires a major outlay of concrete and can cost upwards of 40,000 USD per space.

“In multi-family housing development, underground parking requires a major outlay of concrete and can cost upwards of 40,000 USD per space (Doran 2021;Long 2016).”

• cites Doran 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Long 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

As of 2020, the US had a housing supply shortage of 3.8 million units, and this has been exacerbated during the pandemic.

“As of 2020, the US had a housing supply shortage of 3.8 million units, and this has been exacerbated during the pandemic (Badger and Washington 2022;Khater 2021).”

• cites Badger and Washington 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Khater 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Subsequent amendments to Vancouver's Green Demolition Bylaw expanded requirements to full deconstruction of homes built before 1910 and reuse and recycling of 75% of materials by weight for houses built before 1950.

“Subsequent amendments expanded the requirements to full deconstruction of homes built before 1910 and reuse and recycling of 75% of materials by weight for houses built before 1950 (”

• cites Vancouver Green Demolition Bylaw Expanded," 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Quebec has revised building codes and implemented supportive provincial policy to foster a high-value forestry sector and reduce the carbon footprint of buildings.

“Quebec has similarly revised building codes and implemented supportive provincial policy to foster a high-value forestry sector and reduce the carbon footprint of buildings (Government of Quebec 2020).”

• cites Government of Quebec 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Training and capacity building to salvage materials can address equity in addition to waste.

“Training and capacity building to salvage materials can address equity in addition to waste.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

As of 2020, BC Housing is adopting the strategy of retrofitting affordable housing through the Reframed Lab initiative.

“As of 2020, BC Housing is adopting this strategy through the Reframed Lab initiative, (BC Housing 2020)”

• cites BC Housing 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

As of mid-2022, 307 mass timber buildings ranging from office towers to university residential facilities had been built.

“As of mid-2022, 307 mass timber buildings ranging from office towers to university residential facilities had been built (Todd 2022).”

• cites Todd 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

This deconstruction benefit is largely a result of avoiding production of new materials and carbon sequestration in wood.

“This benefit is largely a result of avoiding production of new materials and carbon sequestration in wood.”

• cites Nunes et al. 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Where green demolition does occur, further training and capacity building are necessary.

“That suggests that where green demolition does occur, further training and capacity building are necessary (Badelt 2018;Dalo 2020).”

• cites Badelt 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Dalo 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Until the long-run benefit of materially efficient construction is factored in, incentives and financing mechanisms could support more efficient building.

“Until this benefit is factored in, incentives and financing mechanisms could support more efficient building.”

May combine two claims.

In 2009, British Columbia passed the Wood First Act which requires provincially funded projects to use wood as the primary construction material and also revised the building code to permit six-storey wood-frame residential buildings.

“In 2009, British Columbia passed the Wood First Act which requires provincially funded projects to use wood as the primary construction material and also revised the building code to permit six-storey wood-frame residential buildings (Frey 2018).”

• cites Frey 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

For all building types, developing technical capacity and a sizable market for salvaged material remains challenging.

“For all building types, developing technical capacity and a sizable market for salvaged material remains challenging (Light House Sustainability Society 2021), though organizations such as the Habitat for Humanity Rebuild Hub serve as nascent examples.”

• cites Light House Sustainability Society 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Unbuilders has become the dominant deconstruction company in the Lower Mainland of BC.

“It has since become the dominant deconstruction company in the Lower Mainland of BC (Lam 2022).”

• cites Lam 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Taking embodied carbon into account, retrofitting affordable housing would reduce emissions even more than previously considered.

“Taking embodied carbon into account, retrofitting affordable housing would reduce emissions even more than previously considered.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Both deconstruction workers and engineers would need to further develop methods and skills for effectively salvaging and reusing materials.

“Both deconstruction workers and engineers would need to further develop methods and skills for effectively salvaging and reusing materials.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A Toronto-based organization facilitates the retrofit of mid-century affordable housing towers across Canada.

“a Toronto-based organization facilitates the retrofit of mid-century affordable housing towers across Canada (Santopinto and Stewart 2020)”

• cites Santopinto and Stewart 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Building with voided biaxial slabs should theoretically cost less due to the lower volume of concrete, but can still cost more because it is not the industry standard.

“For example, building with voided biaxial slabs, or concrete slabs with air bubbles, should theoretically cost less due to the lower volume of concrete, but can still cost more because it is not the industry standard (Gismondi 2018).”

• cites Gismondi 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

While single-family deconstruction could be significantly expanded, other building types represent an opportunity as well.

“While single-family deconstruction could be significantly expanded, other building types represent an opportunity as well.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

For new multi-family housing, one relatively simple, immediate way to reduce embodied carbon is through material substitution such as replacing concrete and steel with wood.

“For new multi-family housing, one relatively simple, immediate way to reduce embodied carbon is through material substitution such as replacing concrete and steel with wood.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Workforce development for deconstruction and material reuse could benefit workers dislocated by the transition away from fossil fuels and increasing automation.

“This approach could benefit workers dislocated by the transition away from fossil fuels and increasing automation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

For more transformative change, local land use policy can be a tool to reduce embodied carbon.

“For more transformative change, local land use policy can be a tool to reduce embodied carbon.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Multifamily, commercial and industrial buildings could be tested with pilot projects to determine the salvage potential for different building types and to inform the reuse market.

“Multifamily, commercial and industrial buildings could be tested with pilot projects to determine the salvage potential for different building types and to inform the reuse market (Sparandara et al. 2019).”

• cites Sparandara et al. 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Reusing the Friedman building resulted in 1.5 million kg of waste diverted from the landfill, and avoided emissions of 822 tonnes of CO2.

“They also noted that reusing the building resulted in 1.5 million kg of waste diverted from the landfill, and avoided emissions of 822 tonnes of CO 2 (Vancouver Heritage Foundation 2010).”

• cites Vancouver Heritage Foundation 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In 2006, when the Friedman building project began, avoiding embodied emissions per se was not one of the project goals, though reducing construction waste was part of the plan for achieving a LEED Gold rating.

“In 2006, when the project began, avoiding embodied emissions per se was not one of the project goals, though reducing construction waste was part of the plan for achieving a LEED Gold rating.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Incentives for retrofit and reuse could be funded through a tax or fee on embodied carbon for new development.

“Incentives for retrofit and reuse could be funded through a tax or fee on embodied carbon for new development.”

May combine two claims.

Replacing mechanical systems presents an opportunity to mitigate leaks and use newer refrigerants with lower global warming potential.

“Replacing mechanical systems presents an opportunity to mitigate leaks and use newer refrigerants with lower global warming potential (Rodriguez Droguett 2019).”

• cites Rodriguez Droguett 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

In addition to financing, zoning and development planning can be more actively leveraged to meet the expanded intent of reducing emissions.

“In addition to financing, zoning and development planning can be more actively leveraged to meet the expanded intent of reducing emissions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Vertical infill helps to avoid the additional embodied carbon associated with new foundations and new infrastructure and can also be constructed with lower carbon materials.

“This type of infill helps to avoid the additional embodied carbon associated with new foundations and new infrastructure and can also be constructed with lower carbon materials.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

ERA Architects is currently transforming the Ken Soble Tower, a once deteriorating 18-storey multi-residential building from 1967, into a model of renewed social housing.

“Putting Tower Renewal into practice, ERA Architects is currently transforming the Ken Soble Tower, a once deteriorating 18-storey multi-residential building from 1967, into a model of renewed social housing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

This highlights a key opportunity for low carbon materials to be used in building retrofits.

“This highlights a key opportunity for low carbon materials to be used in building retrofits.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The goals of the UBC Renew Program were to preserve heritage buildings, address deferred maintenance, reduce environmental impacts, and save money.

“The goals of the program were to preserve heritage buildings, address deferred maintenance, reduce environmental impacts, and save money (Poohkay 2016).”

• cites Poohkay 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Centering equity as part of the preservation agenda can move preservation toward being a more comprehensive vehicle for sustainability.

“Centering equity as part of the preservation agenda can move preservation toward being a more comprehensive vehicle for sustainability.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The integrated embodied carbon strategies discussed in the paper are similar to those recommended elsewhere, but heavily emphasize pathways for lower capacity cities and demand reduction over material substitution.

“The integrated embodied carbon strategies discussed here are similar to those recommended elsewhere (Brandmayr et al. 2018;Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance et al. 2020;Doust et al. 2018), but heavily emphasize pathways for lower capacity cities and demand reduction over material substitution.”

• cites Brandmayr et al. 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance et al. 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Doust et al. 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

New construction could be leveraged to create a financial reward for building reuse.

“Therefore, new construction could be leveraged to create a financial reward for building reuse.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Demand for new space will persist.

May combine two claims.

The University of British Columbia administration took the opportunity to retrofit the Friedman building for 75% of the cost of a new build, transforming dingy 1961 anatomy labs into a state-of-the-art physiotherapy training facility.

“Yet, the University of British Columbia administration took the opportunity to retrofit this building for 75% of the cost of a new build, transforming dingy 1961 anatomy labs into a state-of-the-art physiotherapy training facility.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Ontario-based Tower Renewal Partnership analyzes policy options across Canada, engaging with social housing agencies about their retrofit strategies.

“The Ontario-based organization analyzes policy options across Canada, engaging with social housing agencies about their retrofit strategies (Santopinto and Stewart 2020).”

• cites Santopinto and Stewart 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Zoning bylaws can incentivize the retention and conversion of zero lot line buildings by allowing additional uses or more density than would otherwise be approved in that location.

“Zoning bylaws can incentivize the retention and conversion of zero lot line buildings by allowing additional uses or more density than would otherwise be approved in that location.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In a 2010 review of the Friedman building project, the Vancouver Heritage Foundation posed embodied energy as a factor in considering the energy efficiency of replacing versus rehabilitating existing windows.

“In a 2010 review of the project, the Vancouver Heritage Foundation posed embodied energy 9 as a factor in considering the energy efficiency of replacing versus rehabilitating existing windows.”

• cites Vancouver Heritage Foundation 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The Ken Soble Tower project was primarily motivated by creating healthy, resilient housing; however, reducing embodied carbon helped make the case.

“The project was primarily motivated by creating healthy, resilient housing; however, reducing embodied carbon helped make the case.”

May combine two claims.

Investment in historic districts may cause gentrification and displacement, though the effects are inconclusive due to limited studies.

“In addition, investment in historic districts may cause gentrification and displacement, though the effects are inconclusive due to limited studies (Avrami 2016).”

• cites Avrami 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Spillover benefits also accrue beyond the individual buildings, as projects like the Ken Soble Tower increase demand within a larger retrofit economy.

“Spillover benefits also accrue beyond the individual buildings, as projects like this increase demand within a larger retrofit economy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Tower Renewal Partnership advocates for renewing post-war apartment towers through deep retrofits.

“The Tower Renewal Partnership, a cross-sectoral collaboration of architecture, research, and social purpose organizations, advocates for renewing these buildings through deep retrofits.”

May combine two claims.

Funding for the Friedman building project came from the UBC Renew Program, a UBC/provincial/federal partnership which extended the life of twelve buildings by an additional 40 years for just over half the cost of new buildings.

“Funding for the project came from the UBC Renew Program, a UBC/provincial/federal partnership which extended the life of twelve buildings by an additional 40 years for just over half the cost of new buildings.”

• cites Poohkay 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Where buildings are preserved, full occupancy would deliver the greatest carbon benefit.

“Where buildings are preserved, full occupancy would deliver the greatest carbon benefit.”

May combine two claims.

Life cycle assessment is more commonly applied to new construction; however, several studies have assessed the impact of retrofitting buildings, generally finding lower environmental impacts.

“Life cycle assessment is more commonly applied to new construction; however, several studies have assessed the impact of retrofitting buildings, generally finding lower environmental impacts (Ghisellini et al. 2018).”

• cites Ghisellini et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

When CityHousing Hamilton was deciding how to address the decline of their oldest high-rise, they determined that a low energy retrofit would be the most cost-effective option.

“When CityHousing Hamilton was deciding how to address the decline of their oldest high-rise, they determined that a low energy retrofit would be the most cost-effective option (Case Study: Raising the Bar on Community Housing Retrofits n.d.).”

• cites Case Study: Raising the Bar on Community Housing Retrofits n.d.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

While preservation offers an opportunity to avoid carbon emissions, historically it has also been considered a problematic tool of NIMBYism.

“While preservation offers an opportunity to avoid carbon emissions, historically it has also been considered a problematic tool of NIMBYism (Cheong 2021).”

• cites Cheong 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Another way to bridge the gap between demand for new space and building reuse is with vertical infill, or building on top of existing buildings.

“Another way to bridge the gap between demand for new space and building reuse is with vertical infill, or building on top of existing buildings.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Embodied carbon policy can build on existing priorities; this approach is rooted in demand reduction and can be enhanced with material substitution strategies; building on waste, equity, and preservation policy can make embodied carbon a more mainstream concern.

“Embodied carbon policy can build on existing priorities.This approach is rooted in demand reduction (blue bands) and can be enhanced with material substitution strategies (light green band).Building on waste, equity, and preservation policy can make embodied carbon a more mainstream concern”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Even where precise emissions accounting is impractical, applying an embodied carbon lens can be useful in evaluating order of magnitude trade-offs.

“Even where precise emissions accounting is impractical, applying an embodied carbon lens can be useful in evaluating order of magnitude trade-offs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Retrofitting highrise rental buildings can help to preserve affordable housing, enabling adaptive reuse can preserve historical character, and expanding material salvage can divert waste from landfills, all while reducing embodied carbon.

“Retrofitting highrise rental buildings can help to preserve affordable housing, enabling adaptive reuse can preserve historical character and expanding material salvage can divert waste from landfills, all while reducing embodied carbon.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

These methods to bring embodied carbon from the margins to the mainstream are not necessarily simple, but within the current policy landscape they are achievable.

“These methods to bring embodied carbon from the margins to the mainstream are not necessarily simple, but within the current policy landscape they are achievable.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

These results do not directly translate to other regions given differences in building materials and recovery rates.

“These results do not directly translate to other regions given differences in building materials and recovery rates.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The building industry will not be decarbonized, nor will cities or countries reach their net-zero targets, unless these underlying embodied emissions are eliminated.

“The building industry will not be decarbonized-nor will cities or countries reach their net-zero targets-unless these underlying emissions are eliminated.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

If taken to their full potential, these methods can lay the groundwork for the more transformative change implied in tackling embodied carbon.

“And if they are taken to their full potential, they can lay the groundwork for the more transformative change implied in tackling embodied carbon.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

These methods all contribute to maximizing the value of the carbon already sunk into the built environment.

“They all contribute to maximizing the value of the carbon already sunk into the built environment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Building on existing foundations in waste, equity, and preservation will make embodied carbon more feasible to tackle while also delivering co-benefits.

“Building on existing foundations in waste, equity, and preservation will make it more feasible while also delivering co-benefits.”